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all chemical and physical workings of a cell

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Metabolism

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degradative; breaks the bonds of larger molecules forming smaller molecules; releases energy

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catabolism

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biosynthesis; process that forms larger molecules from smaller molecules; requires energy input

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anabolism

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They are the biological catalysts that increase the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the energy of activation

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Enzymes

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The energy of activation is the ________ to a reaction.

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resistance (required amount needed)

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Enzymes promote a reaction by serving as a physical site for

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specific substrate molecules to position

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consist of protein alone

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simple enzymes

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contain protein and nonprotein molecules

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conjugated enzymes (also called holoenzymes)

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What do conjugated enzymes (also known as holoenzymes) consist of

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Apoenzyme - protein portion
Cofactors - nonprotein portion

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What are the cofactors in conjugated enzymes (also called holoenzymes)

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Metal factors: iron, copper, magnesium
Coenzymes, organic molecules: vitamins

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What is the metallic cofactor required by Catalase and what is the catalytic action?

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Iron (Fe)
Breaks down hydrogen peroxide

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What is the metallic cofactor required by Oxidase and what is the catalytic action?

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Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu)
adds electrons to oxygen

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What is the metallic cofactor required by Hexokinase and what is the catalytic action?

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Magnesium (Mg)
Transfers phosphate to glucose

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What is the metallic cofactor required by DNA polymerase complex and what is the catalytic action?

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Zinc (Zn) and Magnesium (Mg)
synthesis of DNA

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transported extracellularly, where they break down large food molecules or harmful chemicals

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exoenzymes (exit the cell)

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Cellulase, amylase, penicillinase are examples of

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Exoenzymes

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retained intracellularly and function there
*Most enzymes

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Endoenzymes (produced in the cell and stays there)

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a temporary enzyme-substrate union occurs when substrate moves into active site...this is called

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induced fit

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an enzyme that is always present, always produced in equal amounts or at equal rates, regardless of amount substrate

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constitutive enzymes

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what type of enzyme is involved in glucose metabolism

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constitutive enzymes

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not constantly present; production is turned on (induced) or turned off (repressed) in response to changes in concentration of the substrate

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Regulated enzymes

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anabolic reactions to form covalent bonds between smaller substrate molecules, require ATP, release one molecule of water for each bond formed

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synthesis or condensation reactions

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catabolic reactions that break down substrates into small molecules; requires the input of water to break bonds

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Hydrolysis reactions

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Activity of an enzyme is influenced by

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cell's environment

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Enzymes operate under _______, _______, _______ of organism's habitat.

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temperature, pH, and osmotic pressure

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When enzymes are subjected to changes in organism's habitat they become

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unstable

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chemically unstable enzymes

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Labile

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weak bonds that maintain the shape of the apoenzyme are broken...this is called

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Denaturation

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substance that resembles normal substrate competes with substrate for active site...this is called

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competitive inhibition

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inhibits at the genetic level by controlling synthesis of key enzymes...this called

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Enzyme repression

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enzymes are regulated by the binding of molecules other than the substrate away from the active site...this is called

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Noncompetitive inhibition

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enzymes are made only when suitable substrates are present

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Enzyme induction

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the capacity to do work or to cause change

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energy

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Thermal, radiant, electrical, mechanical, atomic, and chemical

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forms of energy

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cells that consume energy are considered

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Endergonic

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cells that release energy are considered

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Exergonic

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if you gain electrons you are considered

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reduced

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if you lose electrons you are considered

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oxidized

(oxidation)

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always occur in pairs

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Redox reactions

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Denoting an oxidation-reduction reaction.

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Redox

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an electron donor and electron acceptor constitute a

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redox pair

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Repeatedly accept and release electrons and hydrogen to facilitate the transfer of redox energy.

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Electron and Proton Carriers

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Electron and Proton Carriers are mostly

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coenzymes
such as: NAD, FAD, coenzyme A, and compounds of the respiratory chain

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Adenonsine Triphosphate is better known as

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ATP

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can be formed by three different mechanisms

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ATP

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transfer of phosphate group from a phosphorylated compound (substrate) directly to ADP

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Substrate-level phosphorylation

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series of redox reactions occurring during respiratory pathway

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Oxidative phosphorylation

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ATP is formed utilizing the energy of sunlight

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Photophosphorylation

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Study of the mechanisms of cellular energy release. Includes catabolic and anabolic reactions.

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Bioenergetics

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Primary catabolism of fuels (glucose) proceeds through a series of three coupled pathways:

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Glycolysis
Kreb's Cycle also know as (Citric Acid cycle, TCA (tricarocylicacid cycle)
Respiratory chain, electron transport (ETC)

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is varied, yet in many cases is based on three catabolic pathways that convert glucose to CO2

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Nutrient processing

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glycolysis, the Kreb's cycle, respiratory chain

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Aerobic respiration

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glycolysis, the TCA cycle, respiratory chain; molecular oxygen is not final electron acceptor

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Anaerobic respiration

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glycolysis, organic compounds are the final electron acceptors

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Fermentation

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In Aerobic Respiration one molecule of Glucose can produce

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38 ATP

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In Anaerobic Respiration one molecule of Glucose can produce

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2-36 ATP

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In Fermentation one molecule of Glucose can produce

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2 ATP

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O₂is the final electron carrier in

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Aerobic Respiration

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Nonoxygen (SO4^2-, NO₃^-, CO₃^2-) electrons are the final carrier in

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Anaerobic Respiration

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Glucose (invest 2 ATP)
Glucose-6-phosphate
Frutose-1, 6, diphosphate

(2) Glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate

substrate-level phosphorylation (harvest 2 ATP)

substrate-level phosphorylation (harvest 2 ATP)

Pyruvic Acid - NET ATP=2

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Glycolysis

Summary of Steps

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Pyruvic Acid Enters

2C Acetyl CoA molecule combines with oxaloacetic acid forming 6C citrate, and releasing CoA (to start Kreb Cycle)

CoA goes back to get 2C Acetyl CoA

Isocitric acid is conveted to 5C a-Ketoglutric acid, which yields NADH on CO₂

Additional NADH is formed when malic acid is converted to oxaloacetic, which is final product to enter the cycle again, by reacting with acetyl CoA

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Krebs Cycle
also known as
Citric Acid Cycle
or
TCA Cycle

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First electron to accept NADH dehydrogenase passed to

Flavo Protein (FMN) passed to

Coenzyme Q passed to

Cytochromes b, c₁, c, a, a_{3 (Cytochrome C Oxidase)}

Same time Hydrogen ions move across membrane down concentration gradient ADP synthesis catylized reaction that form ATP

Water is also produced

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The Electron Transport System (ETC) ; Oxidative Phosphorylation on the Mitochondrial Crist

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contain a tightly bound metal atom at their center that is actively involved in accepting electons and donating them to the next carrier series

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Cytochromes

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The Formation of ATP and Chemiosmosis

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Chemiosmosis - as the electron transport carriers shuttle electrons, the actively pump hydrogen ions (protons) across the membrane setting up a gradient of hydrogen ions - proton motive force
Hydrogen ions diffuse back through the ATP synthase complex causing a 3-dimensional change resulting in the production of ATP

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Most ATP is produced in the

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ETS

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Functions like aerobic respiration except it utlized oxygen containing ions, rather than free oxygen, as the final electron acceptor
Most obligate anaerobes use the H+ generated during glycolysis and the Kreb's cycle to reduce some compound other than O₂

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Anaerobic Respiration

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In complete oxication of glucose or other carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen
Uses organic compounds as termianl electron acceptors
Yields a small amount of ATP
Production of ethyl alcohol by yeasts acting on glucose
Formation of acid, gas, and other products by the action of various bacteria on pyruvic acid

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Fermentation

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Glucose

Pyruvic Acid

Ethyl alcohol Lactic acid

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The Fermentation Systems that Produce Acid and Alcohol

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Given the same glucose different species can produce different fermentation
(Products of Pyruvate Fermentation)

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Clostridium - Butyric Acid
Propionbacterium - Propionic Acid
Streptococcus, Lactobacillus - Lactic Acid
Acetobacterium - Acetic Acid
Yeasts - Ethanol
Enterobacter - 2,3 butanediot

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Pathways involved in Aerobic respiration are

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Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electronic Transport Chain (ETC)

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Pathways involved in Anaerobic Respiration are

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Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

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Pathways involved in Fermentation

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Glycolysis

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The final electron acceptor in Aerobic Respiration is

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O₂

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The Final Electron Acceptor in Anaerobic Respiration is

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Various inorganic ions
(NO₃^-, SO₄^2-,CO₃^3-)

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The Final electron Acceptor in Fermentation is

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Organic molecules

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The products produces in aerobic respiration are

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ATP, CO₂, H₂O

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The products produced in anaerobic respiration are

answer

CO₂, ATP, organic acids, H₂S, CH₄, N₂

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The products produces in fermentation are

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ATP, CO₂, ethanol, lactic acid

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Aerobic respiration is the primary pathway found in

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Aerobes, facultative anaerobes

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Anaerobic Respiration is the primary pathway found in

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Anaerobes; some facultatives

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Fermentation is the final pathway in

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Facultative, aerotolerant, strict anaerobes

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