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Marketing research

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the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, dissemination, and use of information for the purpose of assisting management in decision making related to the identification and solution of problems (and opportunities) in marketing

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Problem-identification research

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research that is undertaken to help identify problems that are not necessarily apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in the future

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Problem-solving research

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research undertaken to help solve specific marketing problems

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Marketing research process

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a set of six steps that defines the tasks to be accomplished in conducting a marketing research study. These include problem definition, development of an approach to the problem, research design formulation, fieldwork, data preparation and analysis, and report preparation and presentation

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Competitive intelligence

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the process of enhancing marketplace competitiveness through a greater understanding of a firm's competitors and the competitive environment

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Internal supplier

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marketing research departments located within a firm

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External suppliers

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outside marketing research companies hired to supply marketing research data or services

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Marketing research industry

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the marketing research industry consists of external suppliers who provide marketing research services

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Full-service suppliers

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companies that offer the full range of marketing research activities

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Syndicated services

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companies that collect and sell common pools of data designed to serve information needs shared by a number of clients

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Customized services

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companies that tailor the research procedures to best meet the needs of each client

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Internet services

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companies that have specialized in conducting marketing research on the internet

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Limited-service suppliers

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companies that specialize in one or a few phases of the marketing research project

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Field services

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companies whose primary service offering is their expertise in collecting data for research projects

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Focus groups and qualitative services

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services related to facilities, recruitment, and other services for focus groups and other forms of qualitative research, such as one-on-one depth interviews

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Technical and analytical services

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services related to design issues and computer analysis of quantitative data, such as those obtained in large surveys

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Marketing information systems (MIS)

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a formalized set of procedures for generating, analyzing, storing, and distributing pertinent information to marketing decision makers on an ongoing basis

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Decision support systems (DSS)

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information systems that enable decision makers to interact directly with both databases and analysis models. The important components of a DSS include hardware and a communications network, database, model base, software base, and the DSS user (decision maker)

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Problem definition

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a broad statement of the general problem and identification of the specific components of the marketing research problem

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Problem audit

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a comprehensive examination of a marketing problem to understand its origin and nature

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Experience survey

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interviews with people very knowledgeable about the general topic being investigated

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Key-informant technique

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another name for experience surveys, i.e. interviews with people very knowledgeable about the general topic being investigated

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Lead-user survey

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interviews with the lead users of technology

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Secondary data

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data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand

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Primary data

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data originated by the researcher specifically to address the research problem

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Qualitative research

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an unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples intended to provide insight and understanding of the problem setting

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Pilot surveys

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surveys that tend to be less structured than large-scale surveys in that they generally contain more open-minded questions and the sample size is much smaller

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Case studies

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involve an intensive exclamation of a few selected cases of the phenomenon of interest. Cases could be customers, stores, or other units

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Environmental context of the problem

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consists of the factors that have an impact on the definition of the marketing research problem, including past information and forecasts, resources and constraints of the firm, objectives of the decision maker, buyer behavior, legal environment, and marketing and technological skills of the firm

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Objectives

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goals of the organization and of the decision maker must be considered in order to conduct successful marketing research

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Buyer behavior

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a body of knowledge that tries to understand and predict consumers' reactions based on an individual's specific characteristics

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Legal environment

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regulatory policies and norms within which organizations must operate

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Economic environment

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consists of income, prices, savings, credit, and general economic conditions

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Management decision problem

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The problem confronting the decision maker. It asks what the decision maker needs to do

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Marketing research problem

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a problem that entails determining what information is needed and how it can be obtained in the most feasible way

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Conceptual map

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a way to link the broad statement of the marketing research problem to the management decision problem

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Broad statement

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the initial statement of the marketing research problem that provides an appropriate perspective on the problem

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Specific components

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the second part of the marketing research problem definition. The specific components focus on the key aspects of the problem and provide clear guidelines on how to proceed further

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Theory

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a conceptual scheme based on foundational statements, or axioms, that are assumed to be true

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Objective evidence

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unbiased evidence that is supported by empirical findings

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Analytical model

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an explicit specification of a set of variables and their interrelationships designed to represent some real system or process in whole or in part

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Verbal models

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analytical models that provide a written representation of the relationships between variables

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Graphical models

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analytical models that provide a visual picture of the relationship between variables

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Mathematical models

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analytical models that explicitly describe the relationships between variables, usually in equation form

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Research questions

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refined statements of the specific components of the problem

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Hypothesis

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an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher

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Self-reference criterion

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the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values

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Research design

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a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It specifies the details of the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problems

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Exploratory research

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one type of research design, which has as its primary objective the provision of insights into and comprehension of the problem situation confronting the researcher

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Conclusive research

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research designed to assist the decision maker in determining, evaluating, and selecting the best course of action to take in a given situation

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Descriptive research

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a type of conclusive research that has as its major objective the description of something:usually market characteristics or functions

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Cross-sectional design

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a type of research design involving the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once

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Single cross-sectional design

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a cross-sectional design in which one sample of respondents is drawn from the target population and information is obtained from this sample once

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Multiple cross-sectional design

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a cross-sectional design in which there are two or more samples of respondents, and information from each sample is obtained only once

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Cohort analysis

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a multiple cross-sectional design consisting of a series of surveys conducted at appropriate time intervals. The cohort refers to the group of respondents who experience the same event within the same interval

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Longitudinal design

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a type of research design involving a fixed sample of population elements that is measured repeatedly. The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures that, when viewed together, portray a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking place over time

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Panel

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a sample of respondents who have agreed to provide information at specified time intervals over an extended period

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Causal research

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a type of conclusive research where the major objective is to obtain evidence regarding cause-and-effect (causal) relationships

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Total error

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the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project

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Random sampling error

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the error due to the particular sample selected being an imperfect representation of the population of interest. It may be defined as the variation between the true mean value for the samples and the true mean value of the population

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Non-sampling error

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non-sampling errors that can be attributed to sources other than sampling, and they can be random or non-random

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Nonresponse error

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a type of non-sampling error that occurs when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond. This error may be defined as the variation between the true mean value of the variable in the original sample and the true mean value in the net sample

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Response error

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a type of non-sampling error arising from respondents who do respond, but give inaccurate answers or their answers are misrecorded or misanalysed. It may be defined as the variation between the true mean value of the variable in the net sample and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project

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Budgeting and scheduling

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management tools needed to help ensure that the marketing research project is completed within the available resources

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Critical path method (CPM)

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management technique of dividing a research project into component activities, determining the sequence of these components and the time each activity will require

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Program evaluation and review technique (PERT)

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a more sophisticated critical path method that accounts for the uncertainty in project completion times

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Graphical evaluation and review technique (GERT)

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a sophisticated critical path method that accounts for both the completion probabilities and the activity costs

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Marketing research proposal

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the official layout of the planned marketing research activity for management. It describes the research problem, the approach, the research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and reporting methods

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Primary data

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data originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research problem

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Secondary data

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data collected for some purpose other than the problem at hand

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Internal data

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data available within the organization for which the research is being conducted

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External data

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data that originate external to the organization

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Database marketing

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involves the use of computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase detail

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Online databases

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databases, stored in computers, that require a telecommunications network to access

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Internet databases

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can be accessed, searched, and analyzed on the internet. It is also possible to download data from the internet and store it in the computer or an auxiliary storage device

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Offline databases

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databases that are available on diskette or CD-ROM

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Bibliographic databases

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databases composed of citations to articles in journals, magazines, newspapers, marketing research studies, technical reports, government documents, and the like. They often provide summaries or abstract of the material cited

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Numeric databases

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contain numerical and statistical information that may be important sources of secondary data

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Full-text databases

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databases containing the complete text of secondary source documents comprising the database

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Directory databases

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provide information on individuals, organizations, and services

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Special-purpose databases

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databases that contain information of a specific nature, E.g., data on a specialized industry

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Syndicated services (sources)

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information services offered by marketing research organizations that provide information from a common database to different firms that subscribe to their services

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Surveys

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interviews with large number of respondents using a predesigned questionnaire

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Syndicated panel surveys

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measure the same group of respondents over time but not necessarily on the same variables

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Psychographics

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quantified psychological profiles of individuals

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Lifestyles

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a distinctive pattern of living that is described by the activities people engage in, the interests they have, and the opinions they hold of themselves and the world around them

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Purchase panels

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a data-gathering technique in which respondents record their purchases online or in a diary

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Media panels

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a data-gathering technique that is comprised of samples of respondents whose television viewing behavior is automatically recorded by electronic devices, supplementing the purchase information recorded online or in a diary

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Scanner data

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data obtained by passing merchandise over a laser scanner that reads the UPC code from the packages

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Volume tracking data

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scanner data that provides information on purchases by brand, size, price, and flavor or formulation

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Scanner panels

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scanner data where panel members are identified by an ID card allowing each panel member's purchases to be stored with respect to the individual shopper

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Scanner panels with cable TV

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the combination of a scanner panel with manipulations of the advertising that is being broadcast by cable TV companies

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Audit

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a data collection process derived from physical records or by performing inventory analysis. Data are collected personally by the researcher or by representatives of the researcher, and the data are based on counts, usually of physical objects other than people

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Industry services

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provide syndicated data about industrial firms, businesses, and other institutions

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Single-source data

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an effort to combine data from different sources by gathering integrated information on household and marketing variables applicable to the same set of respondents

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Computer mapping

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maps that solve marketing problems are called thematic maps. They combine geography with demographic information and a company's sales data or other proprietary information and are generated by a computer

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Qualitative research

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an unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples that provides insights and understanding of the problem setting

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Quantitative research

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a research methodology that seeks to quantify the data and, typically applies some form of statistical analysis

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Direct approach

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one type of qualitative research in which the purposes of the project are disclosed to the respondent or are obvious, given the nature of the interview

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Indirect approach

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a type of qualitative research in which the purposes of the project are disguised from the respondents

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Focus group

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an interview conducted by a trained moderator among a small group of respondents in an unstructured and natural manner

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Telesessions

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a focus group technique using a telecommunications network

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Depth interview

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an unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a topic

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Laddering

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a technique for conducting depth interviews in which a line of questioning proceeds from the product characteristics to user characteristics

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Hidden issue questioning

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a type of depth interview that attempts to locate personal sore spots related to deeply felt personal concerns

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Symbolic analysis

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a technique for conducting depth interviews in which the symbolic meaning of objects is analyzed by comparing them with their opposites

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Grounded theory

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an inductive and more structured approach in which each subsequent depth interview is adjusted based on the cumulative findings from previous depth interviews with the purpose of developing general concepts or theories

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Protocol interview

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a respondent is placed in a decision-making situation and asked to verbalize the process and the activities that he or she would undertake to make the decision

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Projective technique

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an unstructured and indirect form of questioning that encourages the respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern

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Association techniques

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a type of projective technique in which the respondent is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind

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Word association

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a projective technique in which respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time. After each word, they are asked to give the first word that comes to mind

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Completion technique

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a projective technique that requires the respondents to complete an incomplete stimulus situation

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Sentence completion

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a projective technique in which respondents are presented with a number of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them

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Story completion

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a projective technique in which the respondents are provided with part of a story and required to give their own conclusion in their own words

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Construction technique

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a projective technique in which the respondent is required to construct a response in the form of a story, dialogue, or description

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Picture response technique

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A projective technique in which the respondent is shown a picture and asked to tell a story describing it

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Cartoon tests

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cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate a dialogue that one cartoon character might make in response to the comment of another character

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Expressive techniques

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projective techniques in which the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation

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Role playing

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respondents are asked to assume the behavior of someone else

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Third-person technique

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a projective technique in which the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person to the situation

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Survey method

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a structured questionnaire given to a sample of a population and designed to elicit specific information from respondents

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Structured data collection

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use of a formal questionnaire that presents questions in a prearranged order

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Fixed-alternative questions

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questions that require respondents to choose from a set of predetermined answers

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Mail panels

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a large and nationally representative sample of households who have agreed to periodically participate in mail questionnaires, product tests, and telephone surveys

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Hypertext markup language (HTML)

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the language of the web

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Sample control

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the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently

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Sampling frame

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a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target population

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Random digit dialing (RDD)

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a technique used to overcome the bias of unpublished and recent telephone number by selecting all telephone number digits at random

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Random digit directory designs

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A research design for telephone surveys in which a sample of numbers is drawn from the telephone directory and modified to allow unpublished numbers a chance of being included in the sample

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Response rate

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the percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed

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Nonresponse bias

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when actual respondents differ from those who refuse to participate

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Critical request

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the target behavior that is being reached

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Field force

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made up of both the actual interviewers and the supervisors involved in data collections

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Perceived anonymity

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the respondent's perceptions that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or researcher

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Social desirability

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the tendency of the respondents to give answers that may not be accurate but that may be desirable from a social standpoint

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Incidence rate

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refers to the rate of occurrence or the percentage of persons eligible to participate in the study

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Observation

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the recording of behavioral patterns of people, objects, and events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest

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Structured observation

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Observation techniques where the researcher clearly defines the behaviors to be observed and the methods by which they are measured

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Unstructured observation

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observation that involved a researcher monitoring all relevant phenomena without specifying the details in advance

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Natural observation

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observing behavior as it takes place in the environment

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Contrived observation

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the behavior is observed in an artificial environment

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Personal observation

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an observational research strategy in which human observers record the phenomenon being observed as it occurs

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Mechanical observation

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an observational research strategy in which mechanical devices rather than human observers record the phenomenon being observed

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Psychogalvanometer

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an instrument that measures a respondent's galvanic skin response

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Galvanic skin response

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changes in the electrical resistance of the skin that relate to a respondent's affective state

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Voice pitch analysis

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measurement of emotional reactions through changes in the respondent's voice

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Response latency

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the amount of time it takes to respond

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Pantry audit

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a type of audit where the researcher inventories the brands, quantities, and package sizes of products in a consumer's home

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Content analysis

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The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication

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Trace analysis

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an approach in which data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior

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Mystery shopping

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trained observers pose as consumers and shop at a company- or competitor-owned stores to collect data about customer-employee interaction and other marketing variables

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Concomitant variation

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a condition for inferring causality that requires that a cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary together as predicted by the hypothesis under consideration

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Causality

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when the occurrence of X increases the probability of the occurrence of Y

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Independent variables

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variables that are manipulated by the researcher and whose effects are measured and compared

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Test units

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individuals, organizations, or other entities whose responses to independent variables or treatments is being studied

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Dependent variables

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variables that measure the effect of the independent variables on the test units

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Extraneous variables

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variables, other than the independent variables, that influence the response of the test units

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Experiment

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the process of manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on one or more dependent variables, while controlling for the extraneous variables

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Experimental design

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the set of experimental procedures specifying (1) the test units and sampling procedures, (2) independent variables, (3) dependent variables, (4) how to control the extraneous variables

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Internal validity

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a measure of accuracy of an experiment. It measures whether the manipulation of the independent variables, or treatments, actually caused the effects on the dependent variable(s)

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External validity

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a determination of whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the experiment can be generalized

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History (H)

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specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment

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Maturation (MA)

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an extraneous variable attributable to changes in the test units themselves that occur with the passage of time

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Main testing effect (MT)

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an effect of testing occurring when a prior observation affects a latter observation

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Interactive testing (IT)

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an effect in which a prior measurement affects the test unit's response to the independent variable

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Instrumentation (I)

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an extraneous variable involving changes in the measuring instrument or in the observers or scores themselves

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Statistical regression (SR)

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an extraneous variable that occurs when test units with extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment

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Selection bias (SB)

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an extraneous variable attributable to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions

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Mortality (MO)

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an extraneous variable attributable to the loss of test units while the experiment is in progress

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Confounding variables

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synonymous with extraneous variables, used to illustrate the extraneous variables can confound the results by influencing the dependent variable

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Randomization

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one method of controlling extraneous variables that involves randomly assigning test units to experimental groups by using random numbers. Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to experimental groups

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Matching

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one method of controlling extraneous variables that involves matching test units on a set of key background variables before assigning them to the treatment conditions

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Statistical control

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one method of controlling extraneous variables by measuring the extraneous variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical methods

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Design control

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one method of controlling extraneous variables that involves using specific experimental designs

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Preexperimental designs

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designs that do not control for extraneous factors by randomization

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True experimental designs

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experimental designs distinguished by the fact that the researcher can randomly assign test units to experimental groups and also randomly assign treatments to experimental groups

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Quasi-experimental designs

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Designs that apply part of the procedures of true experimentation but lack full experimental control

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Statistical design

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designs that allow for the statistical control and analysis of external variables

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One-shot case study

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a preexperimental design in which a single group of test units is exposed to a treatment, X, and then a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken

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One-group pretest-posttest design

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a preexperimental design in which a group of test units is measured twice

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Static group

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a preexperimental design in which there are two groups: the experimental group (EG), which is exposed to the treatment, and the control group (CG). Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment, and test units are not assigned at random

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Pretest-posttest control group design

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a true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment group but the control is not. Pretest measures are taken on both groups.

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Posttest-only control group design

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a true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no pretest measure is taken

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Solomon four-group design

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A true experimental design that explicitly controls for interactive testing effects, in addition to controlling for all the other extraneous variables

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Time series design

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a quasi-experimental design that involves periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units. Then, the treatment is administered by the researcher or occurs naturally. After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued in order to determine the treatment effect

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Multiple time series design

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a time series design that includes another group of test units to serve as a control group

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Randomized block design

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a statistical design in which the test units are blocked on the basis of an external variable to ensure that the various experimental and control groups are matched closely on that variable

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Latin square design

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a statistical design that allows for the statistical control of two non-interacting external variables in addition to the manipulation of the independent variable

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Factorial design

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a statistical experimental design that is used to measure the effects of two or more independent variables at various levels and to allow for interactions between variables

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Laboratory environment

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an artificial setting for experimentation in which the researcher constructs the desired conditions

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Field environment

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an experimental location set in actual market conditions

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Demand artifacts

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the respondents attempt to guess the purpose of the experiment and respond accordingly

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Test marketing

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an application of a controlled experiment done in limited, but carefully selected, test markets. It involves a replication of the planned national marketing program for a product in the test markets

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Test markets

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a carefully selected part of the marketplace that is particularly suitable for test marketing

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Standard test market

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a test market in which the product is sold through regular distribution channels. For example, no special considerations are given to products simply because they are being test-marketed

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Controlled test market

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a test-marketing program constructed by an outside research company in field experimentation. The research company guarantees distribution of the product in retail outlets that represent a predetermined percentage of the market

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Simulated test market

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a quasi-test market in which respondents are preselected, then interviewed and observed on their purchases toward the product

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Debriefing

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after the experiment, informing test subjects what the experiment was about and how the experimental manipulations were performed

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Measurement

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the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules

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Scaling

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the generation of continuum upon which measured objects are located

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Description

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the unique labels or descriptions that are used to designate each value of the scale. All scales possess description

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Order

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the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to

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Distance

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the characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units

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Origin

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the origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point

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Nominal scale

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a scale whose numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects

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Ordinal scale

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a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which some characteristic is possessed. Thus it is possible to determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object

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Interval scale

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a scale in which the numbers are used to rate objects such that numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distances in the characteristic being measured

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Ratio scale

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the highest scale. It allows the researcher to identify or classify objects, rank order the objects, and compare intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values

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Comparative scales

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one of two types of scaling techniques in which there is direct comparison of stimulus objects with one another

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Noncomparative scales

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one of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set

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Paired comparison scaling

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a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one object in the pair according to some criterion. The data obtained are more ordinal in nature

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Transitivity of preference

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an assumption made in order to convert paired comparison data to rank order data. It implies that if brand A is preferred to brand B and brand B is preferred to brand C, then brand A is preferred to brand C

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Rank order scaling

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a comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order rank them according to some criterion

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Constant sum scaling

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a comparative scaling technique in which respondents are required to allocate a constant sum of units such as points, dollars, chits, stickers, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion

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Q-sort scaling

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a comparative scaling technique that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based on similarity with respect to some criterion

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Noncomparative scale

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one of two types of scaling techniques in which each stimulus object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set

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Continuous rating scale

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also referred to as a graphic rating scale, this measurement scale has the respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other

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Itemized rating scale

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a measurement scale having numbers and/or brief descriptions associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position

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Likert scale

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a measurement scale with five response categories ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," which requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements related to the stimulus objects

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Semantic differential

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a 7-point rating scale with endpoints associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning

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Stapel scale

answer

a scale for measuring attitudes that consists of a single adjective in the middle of an even-numbered range of values, from -5 to +5 without a neutral point (zero)

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Balanced scale

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a scale with an equal number of favorable and unfavorable categories

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Forced rating scale

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a rating scale that forces the respondents to express an opinion because "no opinion" or "no knowledge" option is not provided

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Multi-item scales

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consists of multiple items, where an item is a single question or statement to be evaluated

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Construct

answer

a specific type of concept that exists at a higher level of abstraction than do everyday concepts

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Measurement error

answer

the variation in the information sought by the researcher and the information generated by the measurement process employed

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True score model

answer

a mathematical model that provides a framework for understanding the accuracy of measurement

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Systematic error

answer

affects the measurement in a constant way represents stable factors that affect the observed score on the same way each time the measurement is made

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Reliability

answer

the extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated measurements are made on the characteristic

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Test-retest reliability

answer

an approach for assessing reliability in which respondents are administered identical sets of scale items at two different times under as nearly equivalent conditions as possible

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Alternative-forms reliability

answer

an approach for assessing reliability that requires two equivalent forms of the scale to be constructed and then the same respondents are measured at two different times

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Internal consistency reliability

answer

an approach for assessing the internal consistency of the set of items when several items are summated in order to form a total score for the scale

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Split-half reliability

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a form of internal consistency reliability in which the items constituting the scale are divided into two halves and the resulting half scores are correlated

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Coefficient alpha

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a measure of internal consistency reliability that is the average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different splitting of the scale items

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Validity

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the extent to which differences in observed scale score reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random errors

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Content validity

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a type of validity sometimes called face validity, that consists of a subjective but systematic evaluation of the representativeness of the content of a scale for the measuring task at hand

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Criterion validity

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a type of validity that examines whether the measurement scale performs as expected in relation to other variables selected as meaningful criteria

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Construct validity

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a type of validity that addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is measuring. An attempt is made to answer theoretical questions of why a scale works and what deductions can be made concerning the theory underlying the scale

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Convergent validity

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a measure of construct validity that measures the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other measures of the same construct

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Discriminant validity

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a type of construct validity that assesses the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to differ

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Nomological validity

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a type of validity that assesses the relationship between theoretical constructs. It seeks to confirm significant correlations between the constructs as predicted by theory

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Generalizability

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the degree to which a study based on a sample applies to a universe of generalizations

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Questionnaire

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a structured technique for data collection that consists of a series of questions, written or verbal, that a respondent answers

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Double-barreled question

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a single question that attempts to cover two issues. Such questions can be confusing to respondents and result in ambiguous responses

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Filter questions

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an initial question in a questionnaire that screens potential respondents to ensure they meet the requirements of the sample

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Telescoping

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a psychological phenomenon that takes place when an individual telescopes or compresses time by remembering an event as occurring more recently than it actually occurred

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Unstructured questions

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open-ended question that respondents answer in their own words

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Structured questions

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questions that pre-specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A structured question could be multiple choice, dichotomous, or a scale

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Order or position bias

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a respondent's tendency to check an alternative merely because it occupies a certain position or is listed in a certain order

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Dichotomous question

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a structured question with only two response options, such as yes and no

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Leading question

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a question that gives the respondent a clue as to what answer is desired to leads the respondent to answer in a certain way

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Acquiescence bias (yea-saying)

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the bias as a result of some respondents' tendency to agree with the direction of a leading question (yea-saying)

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Implicit alternative

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an alternative that is not explicitly expressed

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Classification information

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socioeconomic and demographic characteristics used to classify respondents

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Identification information

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a type of information obtained in a questionnaire that includes name, postal address, e-mail address, and phone number

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Funnel approach

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a strategy for ordering questions in a questionnaire in which the sequence starts with general questions that are followed by progressively specific questions in order to prevent specific questions from biasing general questions

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Branching systems

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question used to guide an interviewer through a survey by directing the interviewer to different spots on the questionnaire depending on the answers given

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Precoding

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in questionnaire design, assigning a code to every conceivable response before data collection

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Pretesting

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the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents for the purpose of improving the questionnaire by identifying and eliminatin

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In vivo coding

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to code in the words of the focus group participant -Difficult to do when multiple respondents reply -Responses need to be recorded in respondent's exact words

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Paradigm

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collection of assumptions consisting of agreed-upon knowledge

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Things about focus groups

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-participants need to be homogeneous -do not need to be conducted with participants all in the same room (can be conducted online) -Typically easier to interpret focus group data than data from projective techniques

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Process of developing a research design

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1) Define information needed 2) Decide overall design 3) Select techniques 4)Constructing and pretesting 5) Specify sampling 6) Plan analysis (ANOVA, etc)

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