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ethics

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a system of moral principles that human beings use to judge right & wrong & to develop rules of conduct.

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natural laws & rights

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an ethical system that judges the morality of an action based on how well it adheres to broadly accepted rules, regardless of the actions' actual consequences.

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utilitarianism

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an ethical system that judges whether an act is right or wrong by considering the consequences of the action, weighing its positive effects against its harmful ones.

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intellectual property (IP)

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intangible assets such as music, written works, software, art, designs, movies, creative ideas, discoveries, inventions, & other expressions of the human mind that may be legally protected by means of copyrights or patents.

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digital rights management (DRM)

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technologies that software developers, publishers, media companies, & other intellectual property owners use to control access to their digital content.

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information privacy

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a protection of data about individuals.

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proxy

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an intermediary server that receives & and analyzes requests from clients and then directs them to their destinations; sometimes used to protect privacy.

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information security

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a term that encompasses the protection of an organization's information assets against misuse, disclosure, unauthorized access, or destruction.

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malware

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malicious software designed to attack computer systems.

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botnet

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a combination of the terms robot & network referring to a collection of computers that have been compromised by malware & used to attack other computers.

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distributed denial of service (DDoS)

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an attack in which computers in a botnet are directed to flood a single website server with rapid-fire page requests, causing it to slow down or crash.

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phishing

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an attempt to steal passwords or other sensitive information by persuading the victim, often in an email, to enter the information into a fraudulent website that masquerades as the authentic version.

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risk matrix

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a matrix that lists an organization's vulnerabilities, with ratings that assess each one in terms of likelihood & impact on business operations, reputation, & other areas.

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incidence response plan

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a plan that an organization uses to categorize a security threat, determine the cause, preserve any evidence, & also get the systems back online so the organization can resume business.

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multifactor authentication

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a combination of two or more authentications a user must pass to access an information system, such as a fingerprint scan combined with a password.

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encryption

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technique that scrambles data using mathematical formulas, so that it cannot be read without applying the key to decrypt it.

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public key encryption

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a security measure that uses a pair of keys, one to encrypt the data & the others to decrypt it; one key is public, widely shared with everyone, but the other is private, known only to the recipient.

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firewall

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a defensive technical control that inspects incoming & outgoing traffic & either blocks or permits it according to rules the organization establishes; it can be a hardware device or a software program.

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single sign-on

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a gateway service that permits users to log in once with a single user ID and password to gain access to multiple software applications.

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social engineering

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the art of manipulating people into breaking normal information security & procedures divulging confidential information.

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systems development life cycle (SDLC)

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the process that describes the seven steps in the life of an information system.

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1) planning 2) analysis 3) design 4) development 5) testing 6) implementation 7) maintenance

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seven steps in the systems development life cycle.

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feasibility study

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part of the information system planning process that examines whether the initiative is viable from technical, financial, & legal standpoints.

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requirements analysis

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the process by which stakeholders identify the features a new information system will need & then prioritize them as mandatory, preferred, or nonessential.

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process diagrams

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graphical representations that trace how each process that a new information system will support operates from beginning to end.

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business process reengineering (BPR)

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the design & analysis workflows in an organization with the goal of eliminating processes that do not add value.

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requirements definition document (RDD)

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a document that specifies that features a new information system should have, prioritized by stakeholders; also includes assumptions & constraints that affect the system, such as the need to migrate & possibly reformat data from an existing system.

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service-oriented architecture (SOA)

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a set of design principles in which systems are assembled from relatively independent software components, each of which handles a specific business service.

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use case diagram

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diagrams that show how different types of users will interact with the system.

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unified modeling language (UML)

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a standardized approach to modeling an information system using graphics, symbols, & notations to improve communication & clarity.

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version control software

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a type of software that tracks versions of the source code during development, enforcing checkout procedures to prevent developers from writing over one another's files.

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code review

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a peer review process in which programmers check over one another's work to ensure its quality.

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parallel implementation

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a type of implementation in which the new system is launched while the old one it is replacing continues to run so output can be compared.

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phased implementation

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a type of implementation in which modules of a new information system are launched in phases rather than all at once.

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direct implementation

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a type of implementation in which all the modules of a new information system are launched at the same time, & the old system is turned off; also called the big bang approach.

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change control process

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a process organizations use to manage & prioritize requests to make changes or add new features to an information system.

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legacy systems

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older systems build on aging or obsolete architectures that continue in use because they still function reasonably well & replacing them is costly.

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waterfall method

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method in which the systems development life cycle tasks occur sequentially, with one activity starting only after the previous one has been completed.

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iterative methods

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strategies that compress the time horizon for software development, partly to reduce the impact of changing business needs & the resulting rework; they focus on the time available until the next release, or iteration, & the development team determines how many of the requirements it can deliver in that time frame.

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rapid application development (RAD)

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a strategy in which developers quickly bring up prototypes to share with end users, get feedback, & make corrections before building the fully functional version.

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agile software development

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development strategies involving cohesive teams that include end users, & in which many activities occur simultaneously rather than sequentially to accelerate delivery of usable software.

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scrum

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an agile process for software development that relies on tightly knit, cohesive tams that do "sprints" of 2 to 4 weeks each.

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extreme programming (XP)

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a team-based agile method that features frequent releases of workable software, short time boxes, programmers who work in pairs, & a focus on testing.

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request for information (RFI)

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a request sent to software vendors containing a high level description of the information system an organization needs, so that vendors can describe their products that may fit.

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request for proposal (RFP)

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an invitation to software companies to submit a formal proposal, including a detailed description of their products, services, & costs; the details the requirements developed in the analysis phase & also includes information about the organization's architecture, staffing, & other relevant details.

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best of breed

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an approach used by organizations in which they procure the best systems for each application, regardless of the vendor, & then build interfaces among them.

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unified procurement

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an approach used by organizations in which they prefer systems from a single vendor, especially to avoid the need to build interfaces.

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systems integrator

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a consultant who ensures that the hardware & software components of an information system work together when they come from different vendors.

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project

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a temporary activity launched for a specific purpose, to carry out a particular objective.

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project management

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a systematic approach to project planning, organizing, & managing resources, resulting in a project that successfully meets its objectives.

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initiating processes

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processes that lay the groundwork for the project by clarifying its business value; setting its objectives; estimating the project's length, scope, & cost; identifying team members; & obtaining approval.

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project charter

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a document that authorizes a project that includes a clear statement of objectives, estimated start & end dates, the names of the relevant people & their roles, a tentative budget, criteria for success, & other pertinent information.

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planning processes

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the processes in project management that focus on planning how the project will be executed.

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project management plan

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the road map & guide for executing a project that includes information such as an organizational chart, a detailed description of the work to be performed, information about the schedule, details about meetings & reviews, success metrics, & notations about any information systems or project monitoring tools that will be used.

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deliverables

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the products, documents, or services that will be delivered to the sponsor during the course of a project.

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scope creep

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a term that refers to the way in which features are added in an uncontrolled way to a project, often without considering the impact on the budget or timeline.

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Gantt chart

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a graphic showing the tasks on the work breakdown structure along with each task's projected start & finish dates.

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executing processes

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all the coordinating efforts that ensure the tasks on the work breakdown structure are carried out properly.

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monitoring & controlling processes

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processes that track a project's progress from start to finish, pinpointing any deviations from the plan that must be addressed.

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predecessors

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the tasks that must be completed in a project before a particular task can begin.

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critical path

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the longest path through the project, which identifies those tasks that can't be delayed without affecting the finish date; monitoring tasks that fall along the critical path is especially important.

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closing processes

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processes that formally end the project in an orderly way; they include a signoff by the sponsor confirming that all deliverables have been received & accepted.

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change management

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a structured approach to the transition employees must make as they switch from their existing work processes to a new ones, especially with the introduction of a new information system.

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escalation of commitment

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the tendency to continue investing in a project despite mounting evidence that it is not succeeding; often comes about because people mistakenly let sunk costs affect decision making rather than weighing the value of further investment.

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acceptable-use policy

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an organization policy that describes what employees are allowed to do with IT resources & what activities are disallowed; employees agree to the policy before gaining access to IT resources.

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project portfolio management

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a continuous process that oversees all the projects for an organization, selecting which projects to pursue & which ones to terminate.

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program management office (PMO)

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the part of an organization that oversees all the projects going on throughout the organization & provides project management training, software, & support.

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disaster recovery

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the procedures & documentation the organization puts into place to prepare for a disaster & recover the technical infrastructure.

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business continuity

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the maintenance of the organization;s operations in the event of disaster or disruption.

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cognitive bias

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a common human tendency to make systematic mistakes when processing information or making judgments; cognitive biases can distort strategic planning.

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confirmation bias

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the human tendency to choose information to examine that supports the person's view, but ignore data that might refute that view.

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anchoring

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the tendency for people to rely too heavily on one piece of information to adjust their estimates, even if it irrelevant.

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availability bias

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the tendency for people to judge the likelihood of events based on how readily they come to mind, rather than their actual likelihood.

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black swan

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used to describe an extremely rare event that is difficult or nearly impossible to predict, but which can have an immense impact in areas such as technology, finance, & science; black swans pose enormous challenges for strategic planners.

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hindsight bias

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the human tendency to think that an unusual event was (or should have been) predictable, once they know it actually happened.

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