Major Field Test in Psychology
Introspection
Focusing on inner sensations, images and feelings.
Wundt used this approach as did James with the stream of consciousness.
Wundt used this approach as did James with the stream of consciousness.
Behaviorists
John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior.
Humanistic Psychology
Rebelled against both Behaviorism and Freudian psychology. Pioneers Carl Rogers and Maslow emphasized the importance of current environmental influences on our growth potential.
Psychology
Science of behavior and mental processes.
Nature-nurture issue
The controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience to the development of our traits and behaviors.
Biopsychosocial approach
Considers the influences of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.
Applied research
practical research- industrial organizational psychologists
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. The I knew it all along phenomenon)
Overconfidence
Humans tend to think they know more than they do.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
Testable prediction
Case study
Examines one individual in depth in hope of revealing things true of us all
Naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behavior in a naturally occurring situation without trying to manipulate or control the situation
Correlation
the extent to which two factors vary together. Positive/negative ranges from -1 to 1. Correlation does not imply causation.
Experiment
Enable to the researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by 1) manipulating the factors of interest and 2) holding constant other factors
Experimental group
receives a treatment
Control group
receives a pseudotreatment
double-blind procedure
neither the participants nor the research assistants collecting the data will know which group is receiving the treatment
Dendrite
the neurons busy branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Axon
The neurons extension that passes messages through its branching terminal fibers that form junctions with other neurons
Action potential
short electrical charge that travels down its axon
Synapse
the meeting point between neurons
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. will travel across the synapse and bind to the receiving neuron
Somatic nervous system
Enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system
controls our glands and the muscles of our internal organs
Sympathetic nervous system
arouses and expends energy. will accelerate your heartbeat, etc.
Parasympathetic nervous system
produces opposite effects it conserves the energy as it calms you by decreasing your heart beat and lowering your heart beat.
Adrenal glands
on top of the kidneys and release epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Pituitary gland
located in the center of the brain and is controlled by the hypothalamus: master gland.
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain: is responsible for autonomic survival
medulla
the base of the brainstem controls your heartbeat and breathing
pons
helps coordinate movements
thalamus
brains sensory switchboard: it receives information from all of the senses except for smell and routes it to higher brain regions
reticular formation
filters incoming stimuli and relays important information to other areas of the brain
cerebellum
“little brain” coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres associated with emotions and drives
amygdala
influence aggression and fear
hypothalamus
important link in the chain of command governing bodily maintenance: hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behavior. linked to emotion and reward
cerebral cortex
a thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells
aphasia
impaired use of language
Broca’s area
damage to this area disrupts speaking
Wernicke’s area
damage to this area disrupts understanding
plasticity
the brains ability to modify itself after some types of damage
corpus callosum
the wide band of axon fibers connecting the two hemispheres and carries messages between them
selective attention
your conscious awareness focuses like a flashlight on a very limited aspect of your experience
cocktail party effect
your ability to attend to only one voice among many
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere (gorilla experiment)
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
circadian rhythm
the biological clock: regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle
REM sleep
rapid eye movement: where vivid dreams often occur
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
narcolepsy
sufferers experience periodic overwhelming sleepiness
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated awakenings
manifest content
according to freud the remembered story line of a dream
latent content
according to freud the underlying meaning of a dream
depressants
drugs such as alcohol and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body functions
stimulants
temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions
social learning theory
assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
Continuity vs stages
Is development in a gradual continuous process or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages
Stability vs change
do our early personality traits persist through life or do we become different persons as we age?
rooting reflex
when something touches their cheek babies turn toward that touch open then mouth and root for a nipple.
Schemas
concepts or molds into which we pour our experiences
assimilate
piaget stated that we interpret new things in terms of our current understanding (schemas)
accommodate
adjust our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor- experiencing world through senses
2. Preoperational- representing things with words
3. concrete operational- thinking logically
4. formal operational- abstract reasoning
2. Preoperational- representing things with words
3. concrete operational- thinking logically
4. formal operational- abstract reasoning
object permanence
out of sight/out of mind. The awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived.
conservation
the principle that the quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
egocentric
preschool childrens difficultly perceiving things from another’s point of view
theory of mind
peoples ideas about their own and others mental states
critical period
an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments
authoritarian parenting style
impose rules and expect obedience
permissive parents
submit to their children’s desires
authoritative
parents that are both demanding and responsive.
kohlbergs stages of morality
1. preconventional morality- self interest
2. conventional morality- caring for others
3. actions are judged “right” because they flow from peoples rights
2. conventional morality- caring for others
3. actions are judged “right” because they flow from peoples rights
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
1. trust vs. mistrust
2. autonomy vs shame
3. initiative vs guilt
4. industry vs inferiority
5. identity vs role confusion
6. intimacy vs isolation
7. generativity vs stagnation
8. integrity vs despair
2. autonomy vs shame
3. initiative vs guilt
4. industry vs inferiority
5. identity vs role confusion
6. intimacy vs isolation
7. generativity vs stagnation
8. integrity vs despair
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocab and tests
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedlily and abstractly
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
bottom-up processing
sensory analysis that starts at the entry level
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes as we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
absolute threshold
minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus. the point at which we detect a stimulus half the time
difference threshold
also called the just noticeable difference is the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time
Webers law
for their difference to be perceptible, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion
sensory adaptation
our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
wavelength
the distance from one wave peak to the next
hue
the color that we experience
intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave: influences our perception of its brightness
cornea
light enters the eye here (bends the light and protects the eye)
rods
retinal receptors that detect black white and gray and are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision
cones
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight. they detect fine detail
optic nerve
carries information to your brain (where the thalamus will receive and distribute the information)
blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the eye
fovea
the retina’s area of central focus
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue which in combination can produce the perception of any color.
Hering’s opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision.
kinesthesis
your sense of position and movement of your body parts
nociceptors
sensory receptors that detect harmful temperatures, pressures, or chemicals.
gestalt
an organized whole. Psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings
grouping
the tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and animals
associative learning
linking two events that occur closely together
classical conditioning
we learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events. ivan pavlow
operant conditioning
we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results
observational learning
we learn from others experiences
acquisition
initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship
extinction
the diminished responding that occurs when the CS (tone) no longer signals an impending US (food)
generalization
tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS
discrimination
being able to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli
respondent behavior
actions that are automatic responses to a stimuli
law of effect
B.F. Skinner- rewarded behavior is likely to recur
shaping
reinforcers gradually guide an animals actions toward a desired behavior
reinforcer
any even that strengthens a preceding response
positive reinforcement
strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response
negative reinforcement
strengthens a response by reducing or removing something undesirable or unpleasant
primary reinforcers
getting food when hungry. are unlearned
second reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers)
get their power through learned association with primary reinforcers
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not
fixed-ratio schedules
reinforce behavior after a set number of responses
variable-ratio schedules
provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses
punishment
any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing so (use PET scan)
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few item briefly
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
working memory
active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information
rehearsal
conscious repetition (Ebbinghaus)
spacing effect
we retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time
mnemonic
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery
chunking
we can more easily recall information when we can organize it into familiar manageable chunks
magic number seven plus or minus two
short-term memory is limited to storing about seven bits of information (George miller)
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
amnesia
unable to form new memories
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”
hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system: helps process explicit memories for storage
priming
the activation of particular associations in memory
proactive interference
occurs when something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you experience later
retroactive interference
occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
source amnesia
we retain the memory of the event but not of the context in which we acquired it
algorithms
step by step procedures that guarantee a solution
heuristics
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments efficiently: usually speedier
confirmation bias
we seek verifying ideas more eagerly than we seek evidence that might refute them
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms o how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototypes
availability heuristic
operates when we base our judgments on the mental availability of information
babbling stage
around 4 months of age babies enter this stage in which they spontaneously utter a variety of sounds
one-word stage
around 1 children enter this stage and the stage in which most children speak in single words
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks two-word statements
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks in mostly nouns and verbs
general intelligence
(g) according to spearman underlines specific mental abilities
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive emotions, understand emotions, and use emotions
Standford-Binet
the widely used American revision of binets original intelligence test
IQ
defined as the mental age/chronological age
hierarchy of needs
maslows pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that first must be satisfied
james-lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
cannon-bard theory
the theory that emotion-arousing stimulus stimultaneously triggers 1) physiological responses and 2) the subjective experience of emotion
catharsis
emotional release
problem-focused coping
attempts to alievate stress directly
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alieviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs
personality
a persons characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
free association
freud told his patient to relax and say whatever came to mind no matter how trivial
psychoanalysis
freuds theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts
id
unconscious psychic energy that constantly strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and agress. Pleasure priniciple: seeks immediate gratification
ego
reality principle: seeks to gratify the ids impulses in realistic ways that will bring long-term pleasure
superego
moral compass that forces the ego to consider the ideal- how we ought to behave
psychosexual stages
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
defense mechanisms
tactics that function to reduce anxiety
Karen Horney
agreed with Frued that childhood is important but social, not sexual tensions are crucial for personality formation
collective unconscious
a common reservoir of images derived from our species universal experiences (carl jung).
projective tests
ask test-takers to describe an ambiguous stimulus or tell a story about it
Carl Rogers
Growth-promoting climate required three conditions: 1) genuiness 2) acceptance – unconditional positive self regard and 3) empathy
traits
people’s characteristic behavior patternsn and conscious motives
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces determine your fact
internal locus of control
the perception that they can control their own destiny
learned helplessness
the hopelessness an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
spotlight effect
overestimating others and noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance and blunders
self-serving bias
our readiness to perceive ourselves favorable
anxiety disorder
marked by distressing persistent anxiety or dysfunctional anxiety-reducing behaivor
somatoform disorders
the distressing symptoms take a somatic form without apparent physical causes
conversion disorder
anxiety presumably is converted into a physical symptom (blindness)
dissociative disorders
disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories
major depressive disorder
a mood disorder in which a person experiences in the absence of drugs or a medical condition two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness
bipolar disorder
a mood disorder in which the person alternates between mania and depression
eclectic approach
using a blend of therapies
psychodynamic therapists
try to help people understand their current symptoms by focusing on themes across important relationships
insight therapies
psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies attempt to help troubled people by reducing their inner conflicts and increasing self-understanding
client-centered therapy
carl rogers: the therapist listens to the persons conscious self-perceptions without judging, interpreting, or directing the client toward certain insights
exposure therapy
behavior therapy: that treats anxieties by exposing people to the things they fear and avoid
systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increased anxiety-triggering stimuli
aversive conditioning
opposite of systematic desensitization- its goal is to substitute a negative response for a positive response to a harmful stimulus
cognitive-behavioral therapy
aims not only to alter the way people things but also alter the way they act
biomedical therapy
physically changing the brains functioning by altering its chemistry with drugs, or affecting its circuitry with various kinds of direct stimulation
attribution theory
we usually attribute others behavior either to their internal dispositions or their external situations
fundamental attribution error
overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the influence of situations
foot in the door phenonomen
a tendency for people to first agree to a small action to comply later with a larger one
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard (aschs line experiments)
obedience
milgrams experiments
social facilitation
stronger performance in others presence
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts than when individually accountable
group polarization
the enhancement of a groups prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
altruism
the unselfish regard for the welfare of others
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