Literary Devices Exam Test – Flashcards

It is a rhetorical device that is a form of hyperbole in which exaggeration is taken to a great extreme where it seems impossible. In other words, when hyperbole is magnified to such extent that it is completely impossible to occur, it is called adynaton. Ideas are exaggerated in order to emphasize. Examples of Adynaton from Literature Had we but world enough, and time This coyness, lady, were no crime. We would sit down, and think which way To walk, and pass our long love's day. Thou by the Indian Ganges' side Shouldst rubies find; I by the tide Of Humber would complain. I would Love you ten years before the flood And you should, if you please, refuse Till the conversion of the Jews.

a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. Examples of Allusion in Literature "Learnèd Faustus, to find the secrets of astronomy Graven in the book of Jove's high firmament, Did mount him up to scale Olympus' top, Where, sitting in a chariot burning bright, Drawn by the strength of yokèd dragons' necks, He views the clouds, the planets, and the stars." Jove's high firmament refers to the outer stretches of the universe. "Olympus' top" is an allusion to Greek Mythology where Mount Olympus is home of gods. Similarly, "a chariot burning bright" refers to a Greek Myth of "god Apollo" who is said to drive the sun in his chariot.

Anachronism is derived from a Greek word anachronous which means "against time". Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and out of place is an anachronism. Examples: "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying your steak?" This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his argument. 2. A classic example of ad hominem fallacy is given below: A: "All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn't a murderer, and so can't be a criminal." B: "Well, you're a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument." 3. Another example of ad hominem fallacy is taken from Velonews: The Journal of Competitive Cycling. After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, its webpage shared a post with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying how great an athlete Armstrong was and that the people should be proud of his achievements. The most famous anachronism example comes from Act 2 Scene 1 of William Shakespeare's play "Julius Caesar": "Brutus: Peace! Count the clock. Cassius: The clock has stricken three." The time this play depicts is a point in history dating back to 44 AD. Mechanical clocks referred to in the above-mentioned dialogue had not been invented at that time but were present in Shakespeare's time. Thus, the mention of a clock in this play is an anachronism.

Ad hominem (Latin) means "against the man". As the name suggests, it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent to undermine him instead of his arguments. Examples: "How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are enjoying your steak?" This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed for or against his argument. 2. A classic example of ad hominem fallacy is given below: A: "All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn't a murderer, and so can't be a criminal." B: "Well, you're a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument." 3. Another example of ad hominem fallacy is taken from Velonews: The Journal of Competitive Cycling. After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, its webpage shared a post with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying how great an athlete Armstrong was and that the people should be proud of his achievements.

is derived from Latin's "Latira". It means "letters of alphabet". It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series. Consider the following examples: But a better butter makes a batter better. A big bully beats a baby boy. Both sentences are alliterative because the same first letter of words (B) occurs close together and produces alliteration in the sentence. An important point to remember here is that alliteration does not depend on letters but on sounds. So the phrase not knotty is alliterative, but cigarette chase is not.

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Consider the following example: "Structure of an atom is like a solar system. Nucleus is the sun and electrons are the planets revolving around their sun." Here an atomic structure is compared to a solar system by using "like". Therefore, it is a simile. Metaphor is used to relate the nucleus to the sun and the electrons to the planets without using words "like" or "as'. Hence, similes and metaphors are employed to develop an analogy. Examples of Analogy from Everyday life We use analogy in our everyday conversation. Some common analogy examples are given below: Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race and the one who stops to catch a breath loses. Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer. How a doctor diagnoses diseases is like how a detective investigates crimes. Just as a caterpillar comes out of its cocoon, so we must come out of our comfort zone. You are as annoying as nails on a chalkboard.

In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora. Anaphora, possibly the oldest literary device, has its roots in Biblical Psalms used to emphasize certain words or phrases. Gradually, Elizabethan and Romantic writers brought this device into practice. Examine the following psalm: "O LORD, rebuke me not in thine anger, neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure. Have mercy upon me, O LORD; for I am weak: O LORD, heal me; for my bones are vexed. My soul is also sore vexed: but thou, O LORD, how long?" The repetition of the phrase "O Lord," attempts to create a spiritual sentiment. This is anaphora. Example-Shakespeare does not disappoint us in the use of anaphora too. Read the following example taken from his play "Richard II" Act 2 Scene 1: "This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings [. . .] This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land," The repetition of the word "this" creates an emotional effect on the readers particularly those who are English. Further, it highlights the significance of England. The repetition of the word "dear" shows emotional attachment of the writer to the land and expects a similar response from the readers as well. Example #2 "A Tale of Two Cities" by Charles Dickens starts with following lines: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." The repetitive structure used in the above lines make it the most memorable and remarkable start of a narrative ever achieved by a writer. "It" repeated all the way through the passage makes the readers focus more on the traits of the "age" they are reading about.

Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story or an amusing event often proposed to support or demonstrate some point and make readers and listeners laugh. Anecdotes can include an extensive range of tales and stories. In fact, it is a short description or an account of any event that makes the readers laugh or brood over the topic presented for the purpose. Types of Anecdote There are several types of anecdotes. Amusing anecdotes are often used in literature, family reunions, wedding receptions and other get-togethers. Teachers tell anecdotes to their students in classrooms about eminent people and celebrities. Writers and poets use them in their literary works. Anecdote Examples in Literature There are various examples of anecdotes in Literature, let us take a look at some of them: Example #1 Excerpt from "The Crucible" by Arthur Miller Parris: (It is very hard to say): Aye, a dress. And I thought - someone naked running through the trees! Abigail: (In terror): No one was naked! You mistake yourself, uncle! Parris: (With anger): I saw it! (Her moves from her, then, resolved.) Now tell me true, Abigail. And I pray you feel the weight of truth upon you, for now my ministry's at stake, my ministry and perhaps your cousin's life. Whatever abomination you have done, give me all of it now, for I dare not be taken unaware when I go before them down there. Abigail: There is nothin' more. I swear it, uncle. Parris: (Studies her, then nods, half convinced): Abigail, I have fought here three long years to bend there stiff-necked people to me, and now, just now when some good respect is rising for me in the parish, you compromise my very character. I have given you a home, child, I have put clothes upon your back - now give me upright answer. Your name in the town - it is entirely white, is it not? Abigail: (With an edge of resentment): Why, I am sure it is, sir. There is no blush about my name. Parris: (To the point): Abigail is there any other cause that you have told me, for you being discharged from Goody Proctor's service? I have heard it said, and I tell you as I heard it, that she comes so rarely to church this year for she will not sit so close to something soiled. What signified that remark? Abigail: She hates me, uncle; she must, for I would not be her slave. It's a bitter woman, a lying; cold, sniveling, woman, and I will not work for such a woman! Parris: She may be. And yet it has troubled me that you are now seven month out of their house, and in all this time no other family has ever called for your service. Abigail: They want slaves, not such as me. Let them send to Barbados for that. I will not black my face for any of them! (With ill-concealed resentment at him.) Do you begrudge my bed, uncle? Parris: No -no. Abigail: (in a temper): My name is good in the village! I will not have it said my name is soiled! Goody Proctor is a gossiping liar! Here in this literary text, Reverend Parris finds her niece Abigail Williams chanting and dancing in the woods along with the native village girls. He suspects them of magic and witchcraft. However, she does not accept any of the accusations of Parris and starts narrating whimsical stories to justify her actions. Abigail makes an account that Goody Proctor is a liar. The stories of Abigail are perfect examples of anecdotes.

Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means "turning about". It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. You like it; it likes you" and "Fair is foul and foul is fair" etc. Chiasmus and antimetabole are usually expected to be overlapped in usage and it is also often used as a synonym for Epanados in modern day books. However, the writer would make them distinct through his use. Famous Antimetabole Examples Just see these examples of how it has been used since the time of Socrates to the present modern age. "Eat to live, not live to eat."- Socrates "I go where I please, and I please where I go." - Attributed to Duke Nukem "In America, you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia, Party always finds you!" - Yakov Smirnoff "If you fail to plan, you plan to fail." "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961. "He who questions training only trains himself at asking questions." The Sphinx, Mystery Men (1999) "The great object of [Hamlet's] life is defeated by continually resolving to do, yet doing nothing but resolve." - Samuel Taylor Coleridge on Shakespeare's Hamlet "We do what we like and we like what we do." - Andrew W.K., "Party Hard" "We didn't land on Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Rock landed on us." Malcolm X, "Malcolm X" "If you can't be with the one you love, love the one you're with." -Billy Preston "You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you." Barack Obama - December 14, 2011. What Is the Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole? Antimetabole and chiasmus are very closely related and some experts even use them interchangeably but both the terms still exist to refer to two distinct literary devices. According to scholars, when a sentence is repeated after reversing it so as to convey an idea or stress on a point, it is called chiasmus. Antimetabole is not very much different from chiasmus, only that in an antimetabole the words and grammatical structure is also reversed because just reversing the meaning is not enough. So in the light of the above mentioned facts, it can be deduced that all the antimetaboles are chiasmus, but not all instances of chiasmus are antimetaboles. A chiasmus is a sentence repeated inversely and the only condition of a chiasmic sentence is that the two clauses in the phrase are opposite in meanings. For example, the popular saying by Havelock Ellis's, "Charm is a woman's strength, strength is a man's charm," The aforementioned sentence, although, is an example of chiasmus but is not an antimetabole because the two clauses have opposite meanings but the words and the grammatical makeup are dissimilar. In an antimetabole the word order in a sentence is reversed to contrast the meanings. One very good example is Mae West's catchphrase, "It's not the men in my life; it's the life in my men." As you can see, in this sentence the words, rhythm and grammatical structure used in the second sentence are exactly similar to the first one but only the meaning is opposite. Many experts refer to antimetabole as a subtype of chiasmus.

Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of phrases and clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example: "Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind." The use of contrasting ideas, "a small step" and "a giant step", in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history. Some famous antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech and are frequently used in arguments and discussions. Below is the list of some antithetical statements: Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. Man proposes, God disposes. Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. Speech is silver, but silence is gold. Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness. You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart. Examples of Antithesis in Literature In literature, writers employ antithesis not only in sentences but also in characters and events. Thus, its use is extensive; below are a few examples of antithesis in literature: Example #1 The opening lines of Charles Dickens' novel " A Tale of Two Cities" provides an unforgettable antithesis example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the time which was discussed in the novel. Example #2 In Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar" we notice antithesis in characters of "Mark Antony" and "Marcus Brutus". Brutus is portrayed as a "noblest of Romans" close to Caesar and a person who loved Rome and Caesar. Antony, on the contrary, is shown as a man with evil intentions of harming Caesar and taking charge of Rome. These antithetical characters highlight the conflict in the play.

Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral and literary principles. To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth revealed in a terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings as well as in our daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists and sportsman and other individuals are remembered for their famous aphoristic statements. Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages and clichés are different forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech. examples: Youth is a blunder; Manhood a struggle; Old age regret. [Benjamin Disraeli] Pride hath fall. [Proverb] The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones. [William Faulkner] Life's Tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise too late. [Benjamin Franklin] Yesterday is but today's memory, and tomorrow is today's dream. [Khalil Gibran] The simplest questions are the hardest to answer. [Northrop Frye] A proverb is no proverb to you till life has illustrated it. [John Keats] Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind. [Rudyard Kipling] Examples of Aphorism in Literature Many pieces of literature are appreciated for the aphorisms they contain which are often cited by scholars as well as laymen. Below are some examples of aphorisms in literature: Example #1 Sir Francis Bacon excels in aphoristic style of writing. Possibly, his sayings are the most quoted of all. Read the following examples: "Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability." (Of Studies) "To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is wearisome, to use none at all, is Blunt."(Of Discourse) "Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth the reflection."(Of Praise) Example #2 Shakespeare does not fall behind any writer in the use of aphorisms in his plays. The use of abundant aphorisms testifies to his keen insight and judgment. Below are some examples: "Having nothing, nothing can he lose."(Henry VI) "Life is a tale told by an idiot — full of sound and fury, signifying nothing." (Macbeth) "Lord, what fools these mortals be!"(A Midsummer Night's Dream)

Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means "becoming silent". It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly and leaves the statement incomplete, as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind due to being overcome by passion, excitement or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished so that the reader could determine his own meanings. Types of Aposiopesis Aposiopesis examples may be classified according to the following types: Emotive aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is used in conditions of conflicts between emotional outbursts of a speaker and environment that does not react. Usually, the writer or speaker pauses in the middle of a sentence. Calculated aposiopesis - This type of aposiopesis is based on the conflict of missing thought and its opposing force that rejects the substance of that thought. Hence, the idea is removed that is explicitly expressed afterwards. Audience-respecting aposiopesis - It is based on the removal of thoughts which are unpleasant to the readers or offensive to the audience. Transitio-aposiopesis - It removes the ideas from the end part of a speech in order to immediately get the audience interested in the subsequent section. Emphatic aposiopesis - It avoids the use of full utterance to present the idea as greater and really inexpressible. Examples of Aposiopesis from Literature Example #1 King Lear: I will have revenges on you both That all the world shall-I will do such things— What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be The terrors of the earth! (King Lear by William Shakespeare) Shakespeare has used this technique wonderfully to show moods of his characters. Here, it is employed when King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare punishment but he breaks down and burst into tears. Example #2 "All quiet on Howth now. The distant hills seem. Where we. The rhododendrons. I am a fool perhaps, He gets the plums, and I the plumstones. Where I come in." (Ulysses by James Joyce) In the following passage, Joyce deliberately paused twice in order to create dramatic effect. The idea is left unfinished. This break also gives an impression of reluctance to continue. The unfinished thoughts are shown in bold.

In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by exclamation "O". A writer or a speaker, using an apostrophe, detaches himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech. It is important not to confuse the apostrophe which is a figure of speech and the apostrophe which is a punctuation mark ('). It shows possession or a mark to indicate omission of one or more letters (contractions) while apostrophe used in literature is an arrangement of words addressing a non-existent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings. Example #1 William Shakespeare makes use of an apostrophe in his play "Macbeth": "Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee! I have thee not, and yet I see thee still." In his mental conflict before murdering King Duncan, Macbeth has a strange vision of a dagger and talks to it as if it were another person. Example #2 Jane Taylor uses apostrophe in the well-known nursery rhyme "The Star": "Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky." In the above nursery rhyme, a child addresses a star (an imaginary idea). Hence, this is a classic example of apostrophe.

Assonance takes place when two or more words close to one another repeat the same vowel sound but start with different consonant sounds. For instance, "Men sell the wedding bells." The same vowel sound of the short vowel "-e-" repeats itself in almost all the words excluding the definite article. The words do share the same vowel sounds but start with different consonant sounds unlike alliteration that involves repetition of the same consonant sounds. Below are a few assonance examples that are more common: We light fire on the mountain. I feel depressed and restless. Go and mow the lawn. Johnny went here and there and everywhere. The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle. Examples of Assonance in Literature Assonance is primarily used in poetry in order to add rhythm and music, by adding an internal rhyme to a poem. Let us look at some examples of assonance from literature. Example #1 Try to notice the use of assonance in Robert Frosts poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening": "He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." The underlined bold letters in the above extract are vowels that are repeated to create assonance.

A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word and it means cleansing. In literature it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person. Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle to explain the impact of tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic work and it marked its quality. He further said in Poetics: "Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; . . . through pity [eleos] and fear [phobos] effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions" (c. 350 BCE, Book 6.2). Catharsis Examples Example #1 "Macbeth" by William Shakespeare William Shakespeare wrote two of the famous examples of catharsis. One of these catharsis examples is his tragic drama "Macbeth". This play presents a great example of catharsis. The audience and readers of Macbeth usually pity the tragic central figure of the play because he was blinded by his destructive preoccupation with ambition. In Act 1 he is made the thane of Cawdor by King Duncan, which makes him a prodigy, well-regarded for his valor and talent. However, the era of his doom starts when he, like most people, gets carried away by ambition and the supernatural world as well. Subsequently, he loses his wife, his veracity and eventually his life. The temptation of ambition robs him of the essence of his existence as a human being and leaves behind nothing but discontent and a worthless life. In Act V, Macbeth (5.5.24-28) gathers this idea in his soliloquy. He says while speaking of his life: "...a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more. It is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing" Example #2 "Romeo and Juliet" by William Shakespeare "Here's to my love! [Drinks] O true apothecary! Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die. [Falls]" In "Romeo and Juliet", Romeo commits suicide by drinking the poison that he erroneously thinks Juliet had tasted too. The audience usually finds themselves crying at this particular moment for several reasons. Primarily because losing a loved one is a feeling that all of us share. Watching or reading such a scene triggers the memories of someone we have lost (either by death or by mere separation) and because we are able to relate to it, we suddenly release the emotions that we have been repressing. Function of Catharsis: Dramatic uses In dramatic art the term catharsis explains the impact of tragedy, comedy or any other form of art on the audience and in some cases even on the performers themselves. Aristotle did not elaborate on the meaning of "catharsis" and the way he used it in defining tragedy in the Poetics (1449b21-28). According to G.F. Else, the conventional and the most prevalent explanation of catharsis as "purgation" or "cleansing" does not have a basis in the Poetics. It has rather stemmed from other non-Aristotelian and Aristotelian contexts. Such confusion regarding the origin of the term has led to assorted interpretations of its meaning. An authoritative version of the Poetics by D.W. Lucas thoroughly covered, in an Appendix dedicated to "Pity, Fear, and Katharsis", the different shades of meaning and aspects inherent in the interpretation of the word (Aristotle: Poetics, Oxford, 1968, pp. 276-79). Lucas identifies that there is a chance that catharsis may have some aspect of meanings like "purgation", "intellectual clarification" and "purification".

Characterization is a literary device that is used step by step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage where the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence and then following the introduction of the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then as the story progresses, the thought-process of the character. The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas and getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story respond to the character's personality. Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics argued that "tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life". Thus the assertion of the dominance of plot over characters, termed as plot-driven narrative, is unmistakable. This point of view was later on abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels. Types of Characterization An author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and build an image of it: 1. Direct or explicit characterization This kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards building the character. It uses another character, narrator or the protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject. 2. Indirect or implicit characterization This is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the audience. The audience has to deduce for themselves the characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process, behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and way of communication with other characters and also by discerning the response of other characters. Characterization in Drama On stage or in front of the camera, the actors usually do not have much time to characterize. This is why the character faces the risk of coming across as underdeveloped. In dramaturgy, the realists take a different approach by relying on implied characterization. This is pivotal to the theme of their character-driven narrative. Examples of these playwrights are Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and August Strindberg. Classic psychological characterization examples such as "The Seagull" usually build the main character in a more indirect manner. This approach is considered more effective because it slowly discloses the inner turmoil of the character during the three hours of the show and lets the audience connect better. The actors who act in such roles usually work on them profoundly to get an in-depth idea of the personality of their respective character. Often, during such shows, plays or dramas, no direct statements about the character's nature are found. This kind of realism needs the actors to build the character from their own perspective initially. This is why realistic characterization is more of a subtle nature, which cannot directly be recognized. Characterization Examples "The Great Gatsby" There are many examples of characterization in literature. "The Great Gatsby" is probably the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of the characters. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich but he does not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice full of money. Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay's and Daisy's social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folks. Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune but failed to get him into the upper class of New York. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a "bond man" that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson who fixes the rich people's cars befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro.

Climax, a Greek term meaning "ladder", is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. Climax is a structural part of a plot and is at times referred to as a crisis. It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak that calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, the five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. Climax Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few climax examples in literature: Example #1 In William Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet", the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio: "And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the 'villain' back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio's soul Is but a little way above our heads," As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: "O! I am Fortune's Fool!" He realizes that he has killed his wife's cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because after this act all the prior conflicts start to be resolved and mysteries unfold themselves and thus the story moves toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes.

n literature, colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases or even slang in a piece of writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions in their vocabulary. However, writers use such expressions intentionally too as it gives their works a sense of realism. For instance, in a fiction story depicting American society, a greeting "what's up?" between friends will seem more real and appropriate than the formal "How are you?" and "How do you do?" Colloquialism Examples in Everyday Life Colloquial expressions vary from region to region. Below is a list of some colloquialism examples of American origin: a bunch of numpties - a group of idiots to bamboozle - to deceive go bananas - go insane or be very angry wanna - want to gonna - going to y'all - you all go nuts - go insane or be very angry look blue -look sad buzz off - go away Examples of Colloquialism in Literature Example #1 Mark Twain in "Adventure of Huckleberry Fin" used Black American Vernacular to realistically show how the "negroes" [Black Americans] talked: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome." The use of double negatives is evident in the above passage that is a typical characteristic of Black American Vernacular.

Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings in addition to their literal meanings or denotations. For instance, "Wall Street" literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan but connotatively it refers to "wealth" and "power". Positive and Negative Connotations Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural and personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same denotative but different connotative meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and energetic. Below are a few connotation examples. Their suggested meanings are shaped by cultural and emotional associations: A dog connotes shamelessness or an ugly face. A dove implies peace or gentility. Home suggests family, comfort and security. Politician has a negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity while statesperson connotes sincerity. Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad when used in place of mother and father connote loving parents.

Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. Denotation and Connotation In literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are called the use of figurative language or literary devices e.g. metaphors, similes, personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns etc. Even in our daily conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words and prefer connotative or associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message. Below is a list of some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience in our day to day life: A dog is used to suggest shamelessness or an ugly face. A dove is used to suggest peace or gentility. Home is used to suggest family, comfort and security. Politician has a negative connotation of wicked and insincere person Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating. Mom and Dad when used instead of mother and father suggest loving parents. Denotation Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few examples from literature: 1. An example of denotation literary term can be found in the poetic work of Robert Frost's "Mending Wall": "And on a day we meet to walk the line And set the wall between us once again. We keep the wall between us as we go. To each the boulders that have fallen to each." In the above lines, the word "wall" is used to suggest a physical boundary which is its denotative meaning but it also implies the idea of "emotional barrier". 2. William Wordsworth in his poem "A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal" says: "A slumber did my spirit seal; I had no human fears- She seemed a thing that could not feel The touch of earthly years. No motion has she now, no force; She neither hears nor sees; Roll'd round in earth's diurnal course With rocks, and stones, and trees." Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanza respectively. We are familiar to the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second stanza; rock, stone and tree but the poet uses them connotatively where rock and stone imply cold and inanimate object and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl. 3. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare's play "As you Like It": "All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts," Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines in order to give a symbolic sense to a few words. "a stage" symbolizes the world, "players" suggests human beings and "parts" implies different stages of their lives. 4. Sara Teasdale in her poem "Wild Asters" develops a number of striking symbols by deviating from the denotative meanings of the words: "In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows." In the above lines, "spring" and "daisies" are symbol of youth. "Brown and barren" are a symbol of transition from the youth to the old age. Moreover, "Bitter Autumn" symbolizes death. Function of Denotation Readers are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are familiar to their literal meanings.

The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a divine character is introduced into a storyline for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an interesting outcome. The use of deus ex machina is discouraged for the reason that the presence of it within a plot is viewed as a sign of an ill-structured plot. The explanation that the critics provide for bearing the above stated view is that the writer's sudden resort to random, insupportable and unbelievable twists for the purpose of procuring an ending highlights the inherent deficiencies of the plot. Hence, deus ex machina is a rather debatable and often criticized form of literary device. The term is Latin for "god out of the machine" and has its origins in ancient Greek theatre. It denotes scenes in which a crane (machine) was used to lower actors or statues playing a god or gods (deus) onto the stage to set things right, usually near the end of the play. Requirements Deus ex machinas are solutions. They are not to be seen as unexpected twists and turns in the storyline that end up making things worse, and not as something that contributes towards changing the understanding of the story. Further, it must be shown that the problem solved by a deus ex machina is one that is unsolvable or hopeless. It is also that they are sudden or unexpected. This means that the inherent capacity of deus ex machina to solve the mystery is not apparent till the time the device is actually employed to procure a viable ending for the plot. However, if some other type of intervention like common sense could have been employed to procure the same result, then no matter how sudden the solution is it would not be termed as deus ex machina. Euripides was one of the most prominent users of deus ex machina. Some scholars believe that he was the first writer to employ the device in his tragedies. His work is often met with criticism for the way he structured his plot and for his underlying ideas. Deus Ex Machina Examples Medea: When Medea is shown in the chariot of the sun god Helios, the god himself isn't present. From her vantage point in the chariot she watches the grieving Jason. The argument goes about that this specific scene is an illustration of the employment of the device within the plot of the tragedy. Hippolytus: There are three deities present in this play: the jealous Aphrodite, Artemis the object of Hippolytu's affection, and vengeful Poseidon. However it is only Artemis who appears. She explains to Theseus that Hippolytus was innocent all along and that it was Aphrodite who had sinned and caused all the grief. Artemis also promises to destroy any man Aphrodite ever loves. Andromache: In the end of the play, Thetis the sea goddess appears to Peleus. She comes to take Peleus back with her to her ocean home. The play ends with Peleus going with Thetis his wife, into the ocean. Helen: Theoclymenos is furious when Helen and Menelaus trick him and run away together .In consequence, he tries to murder his sister for not telling him that Menelaus was not dead. The demi-gods Castor and Polydeuces, Helen's brothers and sons of Zeus and Leda, appear astonishingly to interrupt. Orestes: Apollo appears on stage to bring things in order. Apollo clears the situation by informing that Helen had been put amongst the stars and therefore Menelaus should return to Sparta. He also orders Orestes to travel to Athens to stand trial in their court and ensures him of his subsequent acquittal. Further, Apollo states that Orestes will marry Hermione and that Pylades and Electra will also marry. Functions of Deus Ex Machina The tool of deus ex machina remains a popular one even today, being employed in modern films, novels, and short stories. However the scope of the term has been effectively widened to present it as a multifaceted tool. It can be employed for the purposes of moving a story forward or when the writer has "painted himself into a corner" and finds no other escape. He uses this to surprise the audience, to bring a happy ending into a tale, or as a comedic device.

Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions along with pleasure and entertainment. The word didactic is frequently used for those literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. Didactic, therefore, becomes a derogatory term referring to the forms of literature that are ostentatiously dull and erudite. However, some literary texts are entertaining as well as didactic. Didacticism in Morality Plays Morality plays of medieval Europe were perhaps the best exemplars of didactic literature. These plays were a type of theatrical performance which made use of allegorical characters to teach the audience a moral lesson. The most common themes that that were presented in morality plays were what are commonly known as the seven deadly sins: pride, lust, greed, envy, wrath, sloth and gluttony. Another theme that such plays exploited was that repentance and redemption was possible for a person even when that person intentionally gives in to temptation. Historically, morality plays were a transitional step that lay between Christian mystery plays and the secular plays of the Renaissance theatre. Didacticism Examples in Literature Let us analyze a few examples of didacticism in literature: Example # 1 John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is one of the best didacticism examples in the form of spiritual allegory. The poem describes a religious and spiritual journey of a man on the way to deliverance. The poem describes an ordinary sinner "Christian" who leaves the City of Destruction and travels towards Celestial City, where God resides, for salvation. On his way, he finds a companion "Faithful" who helps him on his way to the City. On many occasions, many characters "Hypocrisy", "Apollyon", "Mr. Worldy Wiseman" and "Obstinate and Pliable" try to discourage or stop him from achieving his aim. Finally, he reaches the Celestial City carried by Hopeful's faith. The moral or didactic lesson that this allegorical poem intends to instruct is that the road to Heaven is not easy and it is full of obstacles. Moreover, a Christian has to be willing to pay any cost to achieve his salvation. Besides, a man is full of sin, but this does not stop him from achieving glory. Example # 2 Alexander Pope's "Essay on Man" is a moral treatise. It is a satirical verse that intends to instruct individuals in an indirect way by ridiculing vices of a society. For example: "Know then thyself, presume not God to scan The proper study of Mankind is Man. Placed on this isthmus of a middle state, A Being darkly wise, and rudely great: With too much knowledge for the Sceptic side, With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride, He hangs between; in doubt to act, or rest; In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast; In doubt his mind or body to prefer; Born but to die, and reas'ning but to err; Alike in ignorance, his reason such, Whether he thinks too little, or too much;" The above excerpt is taken from the first verse paragraph of the second book of the poem. It clearly sums up the humanistic and religious principles of the poem.

Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the sentences as "...". Apart from being convenient, ellipsis also helps in advancing the story.The part of a sentence or an event that is left out by substituting it with ellipses is often used to either save time or use it as a stylistic element by allowing the reader to fill in the gaps by using their imagination. Ellipsis can be dated back to Earnest Hemingway who also presented the Iceberg theory, which is also called the theory of omission. Ellipsis Examples Example #1 Among the famous examples of ellipsis in literature, the best would be Virginia Woolf's novel, To the Lighthouse. The book involves two parts, one before the World War I was fought and won and the later one accounts for the events occurring afterwards. All the events that occurred in between have not been mentioned in the book. Rather it has left to the readers to deduce the events from the notable changes that have occurred in the characters' lives.

Derived from the Greek word "epiphaneia", epiphany means "appearance" or "manifestation. In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness or a feeling of knowledge after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story. ames Joyce, the great Irish writer used this term in his writings to indicate a sudden eye-opener regarding the nature of a person or situation. He said that it is the moment in which "the soul of the commonest object ... seems to us radiant, and may be manifested through any chance, word or gesture." He means to say that even insignificant things in our life can suddenly inspire in us an awareness that can change our lives for good. Let us consider an epiphany of a smoker: "I used to smoke a lot. Everyone let me know that it was bad for my health however, I didn't pay any notice. One day I saw my two years of age offspring trying for a used cigarette within an ashtray. Seeing this, abruptly it dawned upon me how terrible smoking was and I stopped smoking."

When somebody from our family and friend dies, we want to commemorate his/her memories. For this, we use epitaph, which is a brief writing or saying. Epitaph is an inscription written on a grave. Generally, it is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute to a deceased person, or to remember a past event. Strictly speaking, epitaph is a short text on a plaque or tombstone, honoring a dead person. It is derived from a Greek word epitaphios that means funeral oration. Many poets and authors have written their epitaphs prior to their death, such as William Shakespeare, Sylvia Plath and Oscar Wilde and John Keats. Epitaph and Eulogy An epitaph and a eulogy have a similar function that is to pay tribute to dead persons. However, both are also different, as an epitaph is a brief and concise commemorative inscription engraved on the tombstone of a dead person, while a eulogy is a spoken or written piece of writing in praise of a dead person, and it is usually made at the funeral. Besides, a eulogy can also be used for a living person, as it incorporates stories, anecdotes and memories of the subject. An epitaph, on the other hand, is just an honoring poem or an inscription written on the tombstone only for the dead people. Examples of Epitaph from Literature The use of epitaph flourished during seventeenth century when writers struggled over the cultural significance of their dead ones. However, later in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many ways were adopted to validate its importance and, therefore, renowned writers wrote their epitaphs before their death. Here we have a list of some good epitaphs: Example 1 Oscar Wilde's Epitaph Wilde's epitaph is inscribed on his gravestone in a very sentimental verse. It reads; "And alien tears will fill for him, Pity's long-broken urn, For his mourners will be outcast men, And outcasts always mourn." This epitaph is from his popular poem "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." The poem describes that death is also like a prison sentence. Further, he adds a witty statement that in the grave "the food in here is awful." Example 2 Robert Frost's Epitaph Robert Frost also wrote his epitaph a few years prior to his death. He took last lines from a poem, "The Lesson for Today." The final lines read as; "And were an epitaph to be my story I'd have a short one ready for my own. I would have written of me on my stone: I had a lover's quarrel with the world." Unfortunately, most of lovers cannot make up their love. However, Frost was nearly close to be done with his love, when he passed away at the age of 88. This quote gives an apt presentation by the poet.

In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility or an ethical appeal which involves persuasion by the character involved. Ethos and Ad Hominem Argument In an attempt to confirm their credibility, a writer or speaker will make use of a typical type of argument called an "ad hominem argument". It is an argument "against the man," i.e. undermining the ethos of a speaker or a writer in opposition. It is a strategy in which a speaker or a writer attacks the character or personality of an opponent speaker or writer instead of criticizing the matter of his or her point of view. Such an argument, however, is generally thought of to be a logical fallacy; nevertheless it can prove to be exceptionally successful and is fairly common in politics. Ethos Examples Example #1 Choice of words can confirm ethos with customers: "Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best." The advertisers try to build up their credibility with their customers by mentioning the experience they have in the field and the technical expertise of their staff.

The word fable is derived from a Latin word "fibula" which means a story that is a derivative of a word "fari" which means to speak. Fable is a literary device which can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end. In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces of nature and inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end. Features of Fable A fable is intended to provide a moral story. Fables often use the main characters as animals that are presented with anthropomorphic characteristics such as the ability to speak and to reason. Fables personify the animal characters. Examples of Fables in Literature Example #1 "A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. "Coming and standing under the tree he looked up and said, 'What a noble bird I see above me! Her beauty is without equal..... Down came the cheese and the fox, snatching it up, said, 'You have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits...." (The Fox and the Crow from Aesop's Fables) Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables put emphasis on the social communications of human beings and hence the morals he draws deal with the realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that flatterers must not be trusted. Example #2 "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies... and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end.... No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery...." (Animal Farm by George Orwell) Here old Major is speaking to other animals. It is presented as the story of the development and emergence of Soviet communism through an animal fable. He advises the animals to struggle against the humans, telling them that rebellion is the only feasible way out to their miserable situation.

A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, while the middle line has seven. The pattern in Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name of a sound unit, which is like a syllable, but it is different from a syllable. As the moras cannot be translated into English, they are modified and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely rhyme with each other. Haiku became popular as tanka poems in Japan during the 9th and 12th centuries. Initially, it was called "hokku" and Basho, Buson and Issa were the first three masters of the haiku genre. Haiku poetry is also full of metaphors and personifications. However, this has been often argued against, since haikus are supposed to be written on objective experiences and not subjective ones. In English, several experiments were made in this genre as given below. Below is a translation of one of the popular haiku examples. Autumn moonlight- a worm digs silently into the chestnut. (Autumn Moonlight by Basho)

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning "over-casting" is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, "Ages have passed since I last saw you". You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word "ages" exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. t is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison but unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement. Examples: Hyperbole Examples from Literature Example #1 In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan's stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying: "Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before." Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter and then warming up of the words in the warmth of the sun during the day are examples of hyperbole that have been effectively used by Paul Bunyan in this short excerpt. Example #2 From William Shakespeare's "Macbeth", Act II, Scene II, "Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red." Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He regrets his sin and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash the blood of the king off his hands. We can notice the effective use of hyperboles in the given lines.

The term refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more words. An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not interpreted literally. The phrase is understood as to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply. Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative sense. Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries. Idiom Examples Example #1 "Every cloud has its silver lining but it is sometimes a little difficult to get it to the mint." The statement quoted above uses "silver lining" as an idiom which means some auspicious moment is lurking behind the cloud or the difficult time. Example #2 "American idioms drive me up the hall!" Here, the word "idioms" is used as an idiom. Example #3 "I worked the graveyard shift with old people, which was really demoralizing, because the old people didn't have a chance in hell of ever getting out." In the extract quoted above, "graveyard shift" is employed as an idiom. Example #4 Kirk: If we play our cards right, we may be able to find out when those whales are being released. Spock: How will playing cards help? (Captain James T. Kirk and Spock in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, 1986) Here, "if we play our cards right" means "if we avail our opportunities rightly". Example #5 "Shakespeare is credited with coining more than 2,000 words, infusing thousands more existing ones with electrifying new meanings and forging idioms that would last for centuries. 'A fool's paradise,' 'at one fell swoop,' 'heart's content,' 'in a pickle,' 'send him packing,' 'too much of a good thing,' 'the game is up,' 'good riddance,' 'love is blind,' and 'a sorry sight,' to name a few. (David Wolman, Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Tangled Story of English Spelling. Harper, 2010.) This passage highlights the collection of idioms used by Shakespeare in his works and these idioms are now used in everyday writing. Example #6 "Idioms vary in 'transparency': that is, whether their meaning can be derived from the literal meanings of the individual words. For example, make up [one's] mind is rather transparent in suggesting the meaning 'reach a decision,' while kick the bucket is far from transparent in representing the meaning 'die.'" (Douglas Biber et al., Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Pearson, 2002) The extract quoted above explains that idioms vary in their degree of transparency that is the extent to which an idiom reveals its true meaning varies. Example #7 "Modal idioms are idiosyncratic verbal formations which consist of more than one word and which have modal meanings that are not predictable from the constituent parts (compare the non-modal idioms kick the bucket). Under this heading we include have got [to], had better/best, would rather/sooner/as soon, and be [to]." The extract quoted above highlights the use and significance of modal idioms. Functions of Idiom Writers and public speakers use idioms generously. The purpose behind this vast use of idioms is to ornate their language, make it richer and spicier and help them in conveying subtle meanings to their intended audience. Not only do idioms help in making the language beautiful, they also make things better or worse through making the expression good or bad. For example, there are several idioms that convey the death of a person in highly subtle meanings and some do the same in very offensive terms. They are also said to be exact and more correct than the literal words and sometimes a few words are enough to replace a full sentence. They help the writer make his sense clearer than it is, so that he could convey maximum meanings through minimum words and also keep the multiplicity of the meanings in the text intact. It has also been seen that idioms not only convey subtle meanings but also convey a phenomenon that is not being conveyed through normal and everyday language and also they keep the balance in the communication. Furthermore, they provide textual coherence, so that the reader could be able to piece together a text that he has gone through and extract meanings the writer has conveyed.

Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual representation of ideas in our minds. The word imagery is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a picture. Read the following examples of imagery carefully: It was dark and dim in the forest. - The words "dark" and "dim" are visual images. The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. - "Screaming" and "shouting" appeal to our sense of hearing or auditory sense. He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. - "whiff" and "aroma" evoke our sense of smell or olfactory sense. The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. - The idea of "soft" in this example appeals to our sense of touch or tactile sense. The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet. - " juicy" and "sweet" when associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste or gustatory sense. Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification, onomatopoeia etc. in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze how famous poets and writers use imagery in literature. Imagery Examples in Literature Example #1 Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet". Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;" Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo portrays Juliet's beauty. Example #2 John Keats' "To the Autumn" is an ode rich with auditory imagery examples. In the last five lines of his ode he says: "Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft, And gathering swallows twitter in the skies." The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of hearing. We hear the lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the whistles of the redbreast robin and the twitters of swallows in the sing. Keats call these sounds as the song of autumn. Example #3 In prose, imagery aids writers to accomplish a vivid description of events. Below is an example of an effective use of imagery from E.B. White's "Once More to the Lake": "When the others went swimming my son said he was going in, too. He pulled his dripping trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower and wrung them out. Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt, suddenly my groin felt the chill of death." The images depicting the dampness of clothes, in the above lines, convey a sense of chilly sensation that we get from wet clothes. Example #4 In "The Great Expectations" written by Charles Dickens, Pip (the hero of the novel) uses many images to describe a damp morning in a marsh: "It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little window... Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass,.... On every rail and gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it." The repeated use of the words "damp" and "wet" makes us feel how rough it was for him in that damp and cold morning. The thick "marsh-mist" aids our imagination to visualize the scene of mourning in a marshland. Function of Imagery The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the reader's senses as possible. It aids the reader's imagination to envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly. Apart from the above mentioned function, images , which are drawn by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification, onomatopoeia etc. serve the function of beautifying a piece of literature.

Innuendo can be defined as an indirect or a subtle observation about a thing or a person. It is generally critical, disparaging or salacious in nature, and its use is almost always derogatory. However, it must be kept in mind that it is the most thinly-veiled form of satire and when it is strong, it takes the shape of criticism. Types of Innuendo Innuendo can be categorized into different forms, such as: Innuendo in nature Innuendo in everyday life Innocent Innuendo Accidental Innuendo Sexual Innuendo Example #1 Several characters in Dickens' Hard Times get their names from the author from how he sees their realities in life. For example, the school teacher is named Mr. Choakumchild that reflects his criticism of the educational system of that time. Similarly, he names a union leader as Slackbridge which shows how he viewed dishonest workers of that time. The objective is to provide a comment to the readers according to the situation in the character is thriving and how the reader should view it. This is a mild form of innuendo. Example #2 "Shall I part my hair behind? Do I dare to eat a peach?" These are lines from The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock, by T. S. Eliot. Spoken by the speaker who is suffering from sexual frustration, and an innuendo is quite visible here. It is the reflection of impotence of the speaker.