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Emotional Regulation

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the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed preeminent psychosocial task between ages 2 and 6 such regulation is virtually impossible in infancy requires practice, maturation, and work (effortful control)

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Effortful Control

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the ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through inclination

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Initiative versus Guilt

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Erickson's third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them

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Self-Concept

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a person's understanding of who he or she it, in relation to self-esteem, appearance, personality, and various traits children's beliefs about their worth are connected to parental confirmation at this age, a protective optimism encourages children to try familiar activities; faith in themselves helps them persist

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Brain Maturation

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the new initiative that Erickson describes results from myelination of the limbic system, growth of the prefrontal cortex, and a longer attention span-all made possible by neurological maturation neurological advances in the prefrontal cortex at about age 4 or 5 make children less likely to throw tantrums, provoke attacks, or giggle during prayer

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Motivation

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the impulse that propels someone to act two types: intrinsic and extrinsic

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Intrinsic Motivation

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a drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the desire to feel smart or competent crucial for young children apparent when children invent dialogues from their toys, concentrate on creating a work of art or architecture, and converse with their imaginary friends

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Extrinsic Motivation

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a drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one;s achievements rewarded from outside, perhaps by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem

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Imaginary Friends

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make-believe friends who exist only in a child's imagination; increasingly common from ages 3 through 7 they combat loneliness and aid emotional regulation

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Psychopathology

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literally, an illness of the mind, or psyche various cultures and groups within cultures have different concepts of a specific psychopathology a recent compendium of symptoms and disorders in the United States is in the DSM-5, many other nations use an international set of categories, the ICD-10

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Externalizing Problems

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difficulty with emotional regulation that involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrollable physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things this is undercontrol

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Internalizing Problems

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difficulty with emotional regulation that involves turning one's emotional distress inward, as by feeling excessive guilty, ashamed, or worthless this is overcontrol

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Playmates

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young children play best with peers, that is, people of about the same age and social status by age 6, most are quite skilled play with peers is one of the most important areas in which children develop positive social skills

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Five Kinds of Play

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solitary play onlooker play parallel play associative play cooperative play

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Solitary Play

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a child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby

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Onlooker Play

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a child watcher other children play

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Parallel Play

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children play with similar objects in similar ways but not together

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Associative Play

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children interact, sharing material, but their play is not reciprocal

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Cooperative Play

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children play together, creating dramas or taking turns

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Active Play

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children need physical activity to develop muscle strength and control gross motor play is favored among young children active social play correlates with peer acceptance and a healthy self-concept and many help regulate emotions advances planning and self concept

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Rough and Tumble Play

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the most common form of active play play the mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm two to three times more common in boys than girls, and flourishes in ample space with minimal supervision helps the prefronal cortex develop, as children learn to regulate emotions, practice social skills, and strengthen their bodies

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Sociodramatic Play

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pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stores that they create major type of active play children explore and rehearse social role; learn to explain their ideas and persuade playmates; practice emotional regulation by pretending to be afraid, angry, brace, and so on; develop self concept n a nonthreatening context build on pretending good vs evil is a common theme of boys sociodramatic play, with danger part of the victory in the end, girls often act out domestic scenes, with themselves as the adults

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Boy Versus Girl Play

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emerges later, at puberty, but towards the end of early childhood both sexes stick to their own unless a particular neighborhood group has no other girls or no other boys

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Parents Differer on Four Important Dimensions

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expressions of warmth strategies for discipline communication expectations for maturity

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Four Parenting Styles

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authoritarian permissive authoritative uninvolved

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Authoritarian Parenting

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an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment for misconduct, and little communication from child to parent low warmth, strict discipline, high expectations of maturity, high parent to child communication, low child to parent communication

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Permissive Parenting

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an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control high warmth, rare discipline, low expectations of maturity, low parent to child communication, high child to parent communication

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Authoritative Parenting

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an approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits, but listen to the child and are flexible low warmth, moderate discipline, moderate expectations of maturity, high parent to child communication, high child to parent communication

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Neglectful/Uninvolved Parenting

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an approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives

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Sex Differences

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biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body type

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Gender Differences

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differences in the roles and behaviors of males and females that are prescribed by the culture

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Phallic Stage

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Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure ages 3 to 6 they masturbate, fear castration, and develop sexual feelings toward their mother , these feelings make every young boy jealous of his father contents that a boy's fascination with superheros, guns, kung fu, and the like arises from his unconscious impulse to kill his father, further, an adult man's homosexuality, homophobia, or obsession with guns, sins, and guild arises from problems at the phallic stage

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Superego

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in psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents

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Oedipus Complex

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the unconscious desire of young boys to replace their father and win their mother's love

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Electra Complex

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the unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win their father's romantic love

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Identification

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an attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else; they try to become like the same sex parent which is why 5 year olds are so sexist the way children cope with guilt and fear in the phallic stage

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Other Theories of Gender Development

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Behaviorism: Gender differences are the product of ongoing reinforcement and punishment Social learning theory; Children notice the ways men and women behave and internalize the standards they observe Cognitive Theory: Gender schema A child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences, which is based on his or her observations and experiences. Young children categorize themselves and everyone else as either male or female, and then they think and behave accordingly.

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Gender Schema

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a cognitive concept or general belief based on one's experiences-in this case, a child's understanding of sex differences cognitive theory offers an explination

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Morality

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a behavior that helps other without immediate reward to oneself, may be in our DNA

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Moral Issues that Arise from age 2 to age 6

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children's aggression and adult's disciplinary practices (nature and nurture are evident in both)

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Empathy

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the ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ form one's own

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Antipathy

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feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person

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Prosocial Behavior

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actions that are helpful and kind but are of no obvious benefit to oneself seems to result more from emotion than from intellect, more from empathy than from theory of mind not automatic

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Antisocial Behavior

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actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person in some ways it comes naturally with guidance children balance giving and taking

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Four General Types of Aggression

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instrumental reactive relational bullying all are present in early childhood; all forms of aggression usually become less common from ages 2 to 6, as the brain matures and empathy increases

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Instrumental Aggression

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behavior that hurts someone else because the aggressor wants to get or keep a possession or privilege common among 2 year olds who often want something they do not have and simply try to take it

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Reactive Aggression

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an impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal, or physical almost every child reacts when hurt, whether or not the hurt was deliberate

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Relational Aggression

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nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at arming the social connection between the victim and other people destroys the child's self-esteem

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Bullying Aggression

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unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attacks, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves most ominous, not rare among young children but should be stopped before school age not only does it destroy the self-esteem of victims it impairs the later development of the bullies

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Corporal Punishment

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punishment that physically hurts the body, such as slapping, spanking, etc children who are physically punished are more likely to become bullies, delinquents, and then abusive adults

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Psychological Control

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a disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents may reduce academic achievement and emotional intelligence can depress children's achievement, creativity, and social acceptance

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Time-Out

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a disciplinary technique in which a child is separated form other people for a specified time most often used with young children in North America

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Induction

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alternative to physical punishment and psychological control, the parents talk extensively with the offender, helping the child understand why his or her behavior was wrong

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