question

Where rRNA is synthesized and early stages of ribosomal assumbly occur

answer

Nucleolus

question

Nucleoli form around these areas of DNA that code for RNA

answer

Nucleolar organizer regions

question

In bacteria, there is no distinct nucleus but there is this region which contains circular DNA molecule

answer

Nucleoid region

question

Densely packed, genes are inert, found mainly around the centromere and telomeres

answer

Heterochromatin

question

Less dense, active genes

answer

Euchromatin

question

Mendel was able to deduce that there were _____ with his quantitative approach and garden peas

answer

Units of inheritance

question

Mendel would've received a Nobel prize in this category

answer

Physiology and medicine

question

Mendel eventually related genes to chromosomes and discovered inheritance patterns of many characters called ______

answer

Transmission genetics

question

Paired unit factors separate or segregate randomly so that each gamete receives either one with equal chance

answer

Mendels first law or law of segregation

question

Crossing TT or Tt in F2 generation with tt to figure out if individual is TT or Tt

answer

Test cross

question

Replicate somatic cells, in many single called organisms such as protozoan salvage and fungi asexual reproduction takes place by this

answer

Mitosis

question

Genetic material divided by nuclear division

answer

Karyokinesis

question

Cytoplasm divided by nuclear division

answer

Cytokinesis

question

Near the end of G1 some cells enter this stage which is a resting phase, cells are viable and metabolically active but not dividing

answer

G0

question

DNA replication takes place during this phase

answer

S phase

question

Occurs in reproductive tissue in plants and animals and results in haploid cells

answer

Meiosis

question

Meiosis I (2n-n)

answer

Reductional division

question

Meiosis II (n-n)

answer

Equational division

question

Homologous chromosomes pair together or synapse

answer

Prophase I

question

Paired dyads

answer

Bivalents

question

2 paired dyads

answer

Tetrad

question

Where non-sister chromatids are joined

answer

Chiasma

question

Random alignment and later separation is basis for

answer

Mendels independent assortment

question

Each dyad moves to one pole, disjunction

answer

Anaphase I

question

Process by which sperm or egg form

answer

Gametogenesis

question

3 stages of Gametogenesis

answer

Maturation, meiosis, and transformation

question

Spermatogonial cells (oogonial cells) become primary spermatocytes (primary oocytes)

answer

Maturation

question

primary spermatocytes (primary oocytes) to secondary spermatocytes and spermatids (secondary oocytes and ootids); polar bodies are formed for female maximizing the cytoplasm

answer

Meiosis

question

Spermatids (ootids) turn into sperm (egg)

answer

Transformation

question

Similar process as Gametogenesis except about sporogenesis and production or micro and macrospores

answer

Micro and macrogametogenesis

question

Chance of all n number of paternal chromosomes going to the same pole in meiosis

answer

(1/2)^n

question

Number of combinations of chromosomes in gametes in meiosis with n = number of chromosomes (heterozygous)

answer

2^n

question

Plants alternate between ____ _____ and _____ _____. Meiosis and fertilization are bridges between these 2 stages

answer

Haploid gametophyte, diploid sporophyte

question

Most important for genetic variation

answer

Mutation, chromosomal segregation, and recombination

question

Mutant genes that produce proteins with no function at all

answer

Null alleles

question

Mutant genes that produce enzymes that has reduced level of effectiveness

answer

Leaky mutations

question

Genotype a that are able to produce the wild phenotype with just one wild type allele. +/m where m is a null allele and the + allele provides enough protein product for normal function

answer

Haplosufficient

question

Genotypes where the null allele (mutant) is dominant: +/M since single wild type allele cannot provide enough product

answer

Haploinsufficient

question

Dominant mutant may be _____ when gene product is protein composed of 2 units (polypeptides) and the mutant polypeptide bonds to the wild type polypeptide and interferes with its function. Ex: osteogenesis imperfecta brittle bone disease

answer

Dominant negative

question

Incomplete dominance examples

answer

Four o'clock flowers, Tay-Sachs disease

question

Examples of codominance

answer

AB blood group, MN blood group

question

3 or more alleles segregating at a locus in a population. Ex: ABO blood system

answer

Multiple alleles

question

When one dose is present it kills the organism. Example hunting tons disease

answer

Dominant lethals

question

Takes two doses to kill an organism, ex: Cy/Cy curly wings in drosophila. Ay/Ay in mice dominant allele but recessive lethal, tailless in cats

answer

Recessive alleles

question

Multiple phenotypic effects from a single gene example yellow body color in drosophila also effects body size, agouti alleles also affect size of molars in mice (quantitative trait)

answer

Pleiotropy

question

Some conditional mutants are affected by temperature and are called ______. Mostly bc the enzyme the gene produces is most effective at certain temperatures example evening primrose produces red flowers at 23 C but white at 18 C, Siamese cats have dark fur where body temp is slightly cooler

answer

Temperature sensitive

question

English physician Garrod studied disease called _____. People who have this cannot metabolize ______ which accumulates in fissures and is excreted in urine where oxidation occurs and turns urine black and causes darkness in cartilaginous areas like ears and nose. He added phe and tyr to diets and homogentisic acid increased. Determined that disease was inherited as simple recessive trait and hypothesized that hereditary info controls metabolism

answer

Alkaptonuria, homogentisic acid

question

Some small homology between X and Y in humans

answer

Pseudoautosomal regions

question

Morgan discovered white eye mutation in drosophila and reciprocal crosses gave different results. Red F x white M = all red, red M x white F = red F and white M. Hypothesized that gene color of eyes was on X chromosome and one dose of recessive was sufficient to produce mutant in males but it took 2 doses in females

answer

X-linkage in drosophila

question

Examples of x-linkage in humans

answer

Color blindness, fabrys disease, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy

question

Heterogeneity sex is female not make so patterns are reversed in these two animals

answer

Birds, lepidopterans

question

A chromosome in its replicated form

answer

Dyad

question

Name 2 evolutionary benefits of meiosis that are not present in meiosis

answer

Reshuffling of homologous chromosomes and crossing over

question

The fundamental Mendelian process that involves the separation of contrasting genetic elements at the same locus is called ____

answer

Segregation

question

In what ways is sample size related to statistical testing

answer

By increasing sample size one increases the reliability of the statistical test and decreases the likelihood of errand pis conclusions from chance fluctuations in the data

question

In a chi square analysis what condition causes one to reject the null hypothesis

answer

When the probability value is less than .05 X^2 > Xc

question

If one is testing a goodness of fit to a 9:3:3:1 ratio ho many degrees of freedom would be associated with the chi square analysis

answer

3

question

Assuming no crossing over between the gene in question and the centromere when do alleles segregate during meiosis

answer

Meiosis I when homologous chromosomes go to opposite poles

question

In studies of human genetics usually a single individual brings the condition to the attention of a scientist or physician. When pedigrees are developed to illustrate transmission of the trait what term does one use to refer to this individual?

answer

Proband

question

A chromosome in its replicated form

answer

Dyad

question

Compute chi square value

answer

Sum of (O-E)^2/E

question

Segregating pairs of unit factors assort independently of each other

answer

Independent assortment of Mendels second law

question

Performed simple crosses and rediscovered Mendels work in 1900

answer

Correns, DeVries, and Tschermak

question

AABBCC x aabbcc product of F2 generation

answer

27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1 8 different phenotypes 27 different genotypes

question

Can get pure lines that are homozygous at all loci through _____ or other forms of inbreeding. This reduced heterozygosity by 1/2 each generation

answer

Selfing

question

Can use pure lines to produce hybrids by crossing them because hybrids show ______

answer

Hybrid vigor or heterosis

question

Inheritance of traits that you have to measure rather than count. Weight, height, length of femur

answer

Quantitative traits or polygenic traits

question

Polygenic or quantitative traits are controlled by a number of genes called

answer

Polygenes or quantitative trait loci QTL

question

Suggests that many genes act in a cumulative way to produce phenotype

answer

Multiple-factor hypothesis

question

Crossed red and white wheat strains and obtained an F1 with intermediate color and F2 into 5 different color categories. 1:4:6:4:1

answer

Nilsson-Ehle

question

Under what conditions does one expect a 1:1:1:1 ratio?

answer

AaBb x aabb

question

What conditions are likely to apply if the progeny from the cross AaBb x AaBb appear in the 9:3:3:1 ratio?

answer

Complete dominance, independent assortment, no gene interaction

question

Alleles at genetic loci act by producing molecules typically enzymes in ______

answer

Biosynthetic pathways

question

Alleles at genetic loci act by leading to growth and differentiation in _______

answer

Developmental pathways

question

Alleles at genetic loci act by act in _______ that transmit instructions from an extracellular signal (chemical, hormone, etc.) that activates a protein that eventually turns on/off genes

answer

Signal transduction pathways

question

Studied neurospora fungus eventually led to one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis later refined to one polypeptide. They induced mutations via x-rays that caused them to be unable to grow on minimal medium but would when supplemented with vitamins such as B-1

answer

Beadle and Tatum

question

Studied 7 mutant strains in neurospora and were able to construct partial biochemical pathway leading to synthesis of arginine. 4 mutants blocked precursor to ornithine rxn 2 mutants ornithine to citrulline and 1 citrulline to arginine

answer

Srb and Horowitz

question

Phenotypes often controlled by more than one locus so genes can interact in various ways to produce a given character

answer

Gene interaction

question

To detect gene interactions need to form _______ to see if they interact with each other in producing phenotype. Must know what each mutant does and make sure separate mutants are not just alleles of the same gene

answer

Double mutants

question

See whether 2 different mutants are the same. Cross 2 mutants and if wild type is produced in F1 then mutants are complementing each other and are at different loci. Cross F1 generation to get double mutants if no gene interaction then expect 9:3:3:1 ratio with double mutant 1/16

answer

Complementation test (cis/trans test)

question

Each mutant allele controls a different step in the same pathway. Both dominant alleles are necessary for purple color in harebell. Either or both mutants produce white phenotype, epistasis

answer

9:7

question

Occurs when genes at different loci control the expression of the same character. When alleles prevent expression of others they are said to be epistatic whereas alleles at second locus which are masked are said to be hypostatic to alleles at first locus ex blue eyed Mary plant, Labrador retrievers

answer

Recessive epistasis 9:3:4

question

Foxglove phenotype with petal color affects intensity of pigment, dark red or light red, and another where pigment is deposited, throat vs petals,

answer

Dominant epistasis 12:3:1

question

Some genes suppress action of others so if have mutant it reverts to wild type in presence of a suppressor gene at another locus ex purple eye color in drosophila

answer

Suppression 13:3

question

When genes that are transferred to a different location on the chromosome act differently especially is gene is located in heterochromatin region

answer

Position effects

question

Autosomal recessive causes this lethal disease that does not show for the first few months but children die by age 3

answer

Tay-Sachs

question

X linked recessive disorder not seen until 3-5 years usually die in 20s

answer

Duchenne muscular dystrophy DMD

question

Autosomal dominant not seen until 30-50 years

answer

Huntingtons disease

question

Mutant gene does not always fully express phenotype, percentage of individuals expressing mutant caused by environment, suppressor or epistatic genes

answer

Incomplete Penetrance

question

Expresses variability of phenotypic expression

answer

Expressivity

question

Ratio from mono hybrid cross with incomplete dominance

answer

1:2:1

question

AaBb x AaBb is made in which gene loci are autosomal, independently assorting, and incompletely dominant what phenotypic ratio would you expect from this cross

answer

1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

question

Regarding the ABO blood group system in humans if an individual is genetically IBIO yet expressed the O blood type it is likely that they have the ______ genotype

answer

hh (Bombay)

question

If a cross yields a 15:1 ratio the phenotype with 15/16 probability is produced by the interaction of

answer

Two dominant genes at different loci

question

Cock feathering in chickens is an example of what kind of trait?

answer

Sex-limited

question

In drosophila male flies that are hemizygous for forked bristles a recessive sex linked gene have normal bristles if they are hemizygous for another recessive gene known as su-f. What does this illustrate?

answer

Importance of genetic environment

question

When 2 genes fail to assort independently the term normally applied is

answer

Linkage

question

The phenomenon in which one cross over increases the likelihood of crossovers in nearby regions is called

answer

Negative interference

question

Hershey chase experiment offered evidence in support of DNA being the genetic material in bacteriophages by labeling

answer

Phosphorus and sulfur

question

Enzyme that deals with synthesis of DNA from an RNA template

answer

Reverse transcriptase

question

What type of bonds hold one complementary strand to the other in double stranded DNA

answer

Hydrogen

question

Deoxyribose and nitrogenous base

answer

Nucleoside

question

In Hershey and chase experiment why was the pellet radioactive in the centrifuge tube that contained bacteria with viruses which had been grown on medium containing 32P

answer

The bacteria were in the pellet and many contained the radioactive viral DNA

question

Frederick griffiths experiments involving bacterium diplococcus pneumoniae demonstrated that a substance from one bacterial strain could genetically transform other bacterial strains. What was the name of the substance capable of such transformation and who determined its identity?

answer

Deoxyribonucleic acid Avery et al

question

DNA polymerase III add nucleotides to the

answer

3' end of the RNA primer

question

DNA polymerase I is thought to add nucleotides

answer

In place of the primer RNA after it is removed

question

DNA replication in prokaryotes

answer

Fixed point of initiation bidirectional semi conservative

question

Determined DNA replication in E. coli is semiconservative by supplying 15N in order to distinguish new from old DNA, one band seen after one generation of replication and 2 bands after two generations of replication, more dense 15N near bottom at equilibrium

answer

Meselson and stahl

question

To initiate DNA replication in vitro kornberg used

answer

DNA polymerase, 4 deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates & DNA template

question

In eukaryotic DNA synthesis a gap in DNA synthesis from the lagging stand template created by removal of the primer in this region is solved by

answer

Telomerase which adds repeats that form a hairpin loop that fills the gap and allows synthesis

question

All such mutations in bacteria are generally expressed directly because

answer

Bacteria are haploid

question

Bacteria that cannot grow in a minimal medium. They have lost the ability to synthesize one or more organic compounds

answer

Autotrophs

question

Bacteria that can grow in minimal medium

answer

Prototroph

question

Bacteria growth at first is slow

answer

Lag phase

question

Period of rapid growth for bacteria

answer

Log phase

question

No additional growth occurs in bacteria 10^9 cells/mL

answer

Stationary phase

question

performed experiment with 2 auxotrophic e coli strains with F+ and F- factor

answer

Lederburg and Tatum

question

performed interrupted mating experiment with Hfr x F- to show genes were transferred in a specific order, linear but different direction each time, showed chromosome was circular and being cut

answer

wollman and jacob

question

F factor not transferred bc its at the end, forms a merozygote which consists of endogenote, one complete genome, and one partial genome, exogenote. exogenote must integrate to be expressed which happens only by double or even number of cross over

answer

Hfr x F-

question

F plasmid is integrated into genome

answer

Hfr

question

F plasmid is independent of genome

answer

F+

question

with genome passing linearly we can map the genome by

answer

minutes

question

when F factor leaves genome and goes into cytoplasm and takes part of bacterial genome

answer

F'

question

can pass F factor and bacterial genes from another bacteria, creates partial diploid called merozygote

answer

F' x F-

question

uses sex pilus

answer

conjugation

question

bacteria takes up extracellular pieces of DNA from the environment, binds at a receptor site on a competent bacteria cell, pass into cell via active transport, 1 of 2 strands of DNA is degraded and other pairs with homologous region which it replaces, get heteroduplex since strands are not identical

answer

transformation

question

in transformation, after replication you get 2 different cells

answer

one with original genotype and one with transformed genes

question

genes on DNA that get transformed are close to each other and said to be _________ and can establish relative mapping distances

answer

linked

question

phage attacks bacteria, bacteria replication shuts down and phage dna replication occurs and make new phages, discovered by regular crosses of auxotrophic mutants where bacterial cells did not have contact, one had prophage and one didnt, prophage broke from chromosome became lytic and infected the other bacterial cell with some of the dna it took from the first bacterial cell

answer

transduction

question

cell is lysed when 200 phages are made and lysozome bursts cell, clear areas where they get out is called plaque

answer

lytic cycle (lysis)

question

dna from phage integrates onto chromosome (prophage)

answer

lysogenic cycle (lysogeny)

question

can only lyse the cell

answer

virulent phage

question

can lyse cell or act as prophage

answer

temperate phage

question

viral dna that can replicate in the cytoplasm or as part of bacterial chromosome

answer

episome

question

any region of the bacterial chromosome is mistakenly packaged

answer

generalized transduction

question

DNA integrates into bacterial genome and can replicate with it

answer

complete transduction

question

DNA does not integrate into genome and cannot replicate but is passed down from one cell to the next

answer

abortive transduction

question

specific genes such as gal are transduced, makes merozygotes

answer

specialized transduction

question

recombination in phages produce mutants with larger plaque and clear edges

answer

rapid lysis (r)

question

T2 phages can infect E. coli B (normal) but with this mutant they can infect E. coli B-2 causing center of plaques to appear darker

answer

host range (h) mutation

question

how to find recombination frequency in phages,

answer

% recombinant plaques/ total plaques

question

h+r and hr+ allow 2 mutants to simultaneously infect bacteria

answer

mixed infections

question

more doubles than expected on random chance in mixed infections of phages

answer

negative interference

question

did experiment on rII locus recombination of t4 phage, mutants at this locus produced distict plaques when grown on B bacteria but cannot grow on K bacteria, mixed 2 r mutants together in B and allowed them to grow and then plated them on K to let them grow therefore since they grew on K they complemented each other

answer

Benzer

question

benzer eventually used deletions for recombination testing, when crossed point mutation in area of deletion with deletion mutant would not recombine as WT, so know mutation is in area of deletion, used overlapping deletions to narrow mutation site, many deletion sites now known as nucleotides, this was referred to as the _______

answer

fine structure analysis

question

genetic material must be capable of:

answer

replication during meiosis/mitosis, storage of hereditary info, expression of info, mutation,

question

central dogma of molecular genetics

answer

DNA makes mRNA makes proteins

question

prokaryote studies of virulent (smooth) streptococcus and avirulent (rough), living S = mouse dies, heat killed S = mouse lives, living R into mice = mouse lives, living R with heat-killed S = mouse dies, called this tranformation

answer

griffith

question

follow up griffiths work, S strain extract into mouse with polysaccharides, lipids, RNA, and protein all destroyed mouse dies and live S strain recovered. but when DNA destroyed mouse lived and no live S strain recovered

answer

avery et al

question

used radioisotopes 32P and 35S in T2 phage, P incorporated into DNA and S into protein with phage in presence of bacteria P was inside bacteria and most of S was outside

answer

hershey chase

question

number of ways to arrange nucleotides

answer

4^n, n = number of nucleotides

question

studied x-ray diffraction and proposed DNA structure, rosalind franklin found pattern

answer

watson and crick

question

concluded wrong that DNA was triple helix

answer

linus pauling

question

U replaces T, single stranded, can fold back to form double strand regions

answer

RNA

question

measures sedimentation of RNA determined by size and shape

answer

svedburg coefficient S

question

largest RNA makes up ____% of RNA in cell

answer

rRNA, 80

question

length of DNA that is replicated following one initiation at a single origin (in bacteria is entire chromosome)

answer

replicon

question

discovered DNA polymerase I

answer

kornberg

question

DNA polymerase I and II have 3' to 5' exonuclease activity which allows them to cut out the wrong nucleotide and synthesis can proceed

answer

exonuclease proofreading

question

differences in eukaryotic replication compared to prokaryotic

answer

have multiple replication origins (many replicons), have a number of DNA polymerases, special process for replication at end of chromosome

question

origins of replicating segments of yeast (250-400 replicons) consist of 11 base pairs flanked by short sequences

answer

automonously replicating sequences ARSs

question

6 types of DNA polymerase in eukaryotes

answer

3 for DNA replication, 2 for DNA repair, 1 for synthesis of mitochondrial DNA

question

special process for replication at end of chromosome

answer

primer produced at end of chromosome has no OH to build on so shortens by one length of RNA primer so telomerase carries a short RNA molecule so primase can add primer and fill gap

question

telomerase in a protozoan

answer

contains its own RNA of 159 bases including complementary ones and behaves like reverse transcriptase synthesizing a DNA complement

question

without telomeres

answer

double stand ends of chromosomes would be mistaken for double strand breaks by the cell and attempts would be made to repair these by fusing or stopping cell division

question

cancer cells maintain

answer

telomerase and allow cell to divide

question

people have shorter telomeres bc of mutation in WRN gene that codes for a helicase that is part of the telomere cap structure, causes premature aging

answer

werner syndrome

question

labeled uracil in RNA was found mostly in cytoplasm

answer

pulse-chase experiments

question

template strand

answer

antisense strand

question

nontemplate strand

answer

sense strand/coding strand

question

initiation is dependent on _____, or cis-acting elements (TATA 30 elements upstream) and (CAAT -80 upstream) general transcription factors, necessary for recognition by RNA polymerase

answer

promoters

question

trans-acting factors, proteins known as transcription factors (TFIIA, TFIIB)

answer

enhancers

question

RNA polymerase recognizes transcription factors and binds to promoter to form

answer

preinitiation complex

question

pre-mRNA has 7mG cap added to 5' end to prevent degradation and essential for translation and cleavage of 3' end 10 to 35 nucleotides form a conserved AAUAA and addition of a polyA tail, 150-200 As added (all done in nucleus)

answer

cotranscriptional modification or processing

question

foudn with spliceosome during splicing

answer

snRNA

question

rare introns form a ribozyme that perform function of spliceosome, RNA first genetic material, RNA world

answer

self-splicing

question

encodes a small RNA rather than protein that produced mutant phenotype, repress expression of genes, produced from genes that make longer DNA fold in half and cleaved into 22 nucleotide products, repress translation, or promote degredation by removing poly A tail

answer

miRNA micro

question

double strand RNA formed that repressed mRNA and results in gene silencing first found in C elegans roundworm 35 nucleotides in length

answer

siRNA

question

special subunit of RNA polymerase in prokaryotes that recognizes and binds to the promoter region

answer

sigma factor

question

protein synthesis took place in

answer

cytoplasm at ribosomes

question

regions of specific AA sequences that are associated with specific functions in protein molecules

answer

protein domains

question

used enzyme tryptophan shynthetase from e coli and isolated mutants and matched them turned out to be same order as altered amino acids: colinearity

answer

yanosky

question

used in vitro protein synthesizing system and polynucleotide phosphorylase which allowed production of synthetic mRNAs, enzyme required no DNa template unlike polymerase, created poly U strands and found phe matched

answer

nirrenburg and matthaei

question

wobble hypothesis several tRNAs with different anticodons may attract same AA

answer

crick

question

stop codons

answer

UAG, UAA, UGA

question

AA code for same in all species, except UGA codes for tryptophan in mtDNA or Mycoplasma capricolum or some protozoans

answer

universal code

question

AA binds to tRNA to begin charging under direction of

answer

aminoacyl tRNA synthetases

question

complete set of proteins produced by genes in an organism, many more proteins than genes bc of alternative splicing and posttranslational modifications

answer

proteome

question

proteins assume a 3D configuration with chaperones, phosphorylation phosphate added to OH group by kinases removed by phosphatases, addition of multiple copies of protein ubiquitin that targets for protein degradation for short-lived damaged or mutated proteins, change in N-termal to signal sequence used for protein targeting

answer

posttranslational modifications

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