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Learning

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Systematic, relatively permanent, changes in behavior that occur through experience

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Behaviorism

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Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors; Discounts importance of mental activity

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Types of Learning

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Associative Learning and Conditioning, and Observational Learning

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Associative Learning and Conditioning

answer

Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

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Classical Conditioning

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Association between two stimuli; Based on involuntary responses

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Reflex

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Automatic, Without prior learning (Unconditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned response)

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Classical Conditioning: Learning

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Association after pairing of stimuli (Conditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Response)

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Operant Conditioning

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Association between behavior and consequence; explains voluntary behaviors

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Observational Learning

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Observing and imitating another's behavior

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Acquisition

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Learning of the connection between unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus (Contiguity, Contingency)

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Contiguity

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Unconditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Stimulus are used close in time

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Contingency

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Conditioned Stimulus is a reliable indicator of the Unconditioned Stimulus

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Generalization

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Stimulus similar to the Conditioned Stimulus elicits response similar to Conditioned Response

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Discrimination

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Process of learning to respond only to some stimuli

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Extinction

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Weakening of Conditioned response when Unconditioned Stimulus is absent

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Spontaneous Recovery

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Recurrence of Conditioned Response after time delay, without further conditioning

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Renewal

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Recovery of Conditioned Response in novel context

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Systematic Desensitization

answer

Treats anxiety by teaching the client to associate deep relaxation with increasing anxiety-producing situations

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Counter Conditioning

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a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning

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Placebo Effects

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The fact that subjects' expectations can lead them to experience some change even though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.

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Immunosupression

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treatment to repress or interfere with the ability of the immune system to respond to stimulation by antigens

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Taste Aversion Learning

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a form of learning in which an organism learns to avoid a taste after just one pairing of that taste with illness; mostly done with animals

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Drug Habituation

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a mild form of psychologic dependence on a drug

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B. F. Skinner

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An American psychologist known for his research in the area of learning and conditioning. Also know for the "Skinner box".

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Thorndike's Law of Effect

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A belief that positive outcomes strengthen behavior while negative outcomes weaken behavior

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The Skinner Box

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controlled conditions to study operant conditioning

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Shaping

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rewarding approximations of desired behaviors

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Principles of reinforcement

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reinforcement increases the probability of behavior

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Positive Reinforcement

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presenting or adding of something pleasant

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Primary Reinforcer

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inately satisfying

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Negative Reinforcement

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Removing or taking away of something unpleasant

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Secondary Reinforcer

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Aquires positive value through experience

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Continuous Reinforcement

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Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

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Partial Reinforcement

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Reinforcement only follows behavior a portion of the time

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Partial Reinforcement Schedules

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Fixed Interval, Fixed Ratio, Variable Interval, Variable Ratio

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Ratio

answer

the number of behaviors

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Interval

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Elapsed time

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Fixed

answer

predictable

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Variable

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unpredictable

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Fixed Ratio

answer

Based on a set number of behaviors

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Fixed Interval

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Rewarding Behavior after fixed amount of time passes

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Variable Ratio

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Based on average (unpredictable) number of behaviors

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Variable Interval

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Rewarding after variable amount of time passes; hardest to extinguish

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Punishment

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Decreases likelihood of behavior

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Positive Punishment

answer

Presentation or adding of something unpleasant

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Negative Punishment

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Removal or taking away of something pleasant; timeout

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Immediate vs. delayed reinforcement

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Waiting for delayed but more highly valued reinforcers

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Immediate vs. Delayed Punishment

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Immediate is more effective but delayed can have effect

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Immediate Reinforcement vs. Delayed Punishment

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Immediate consequences usually win

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Bandura's Observational Learning

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also called imitation or modeling; learning when behavior is observed and imitated (Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction)

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Vicarious Reinforcement and Vicarious Punishment

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Reinforcement or incentive conditions

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Deferred Imitation

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Ability to imitate a models behavior hours, days, and even weeks after observation

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Applied Behavior Analysis

answer

Also called behavior modification; a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcing contingent are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior; Use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior; all human behavior is understood as being influenced by rewards and punishments

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Purposive Behavior

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Behavior is goal directed

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Expectancy Learning and Information

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Unreinforced learning, not immediately reflected in behavior.

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Latent (Implicit) Learning

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Unreinforced learning not immediately reflected in behavior; rats in maze

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Insight Learning

answer

Problem solving in which sudden insight or understanding occurs; thinking outside the box

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Stick Problem/Box Problem

answer

Kohler's (1925) experiments with chimpanzees (insight learning)

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A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience

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Learning

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What type of stimulus triggers a certain response or behavior.

answer

Classical Conditioning

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Who performed the dog experiment?

answer

Ivan Pavlov

question

A stimulus that triggers a response without conditioning.

answer

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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The automatic, unlearned, reflexive reaction to a stimulus.

answer

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

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An originally neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.

answer

Conditioned stimulus (CS):

question

The response triggered by the conditioned stimulus.

answer

Conditioned response (CR)

question

loss of a conditioned response over time that can quickly be relearned through reconditioning

answer

Extinction

question

temporary reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction

answer

Spontaneous Recovery

question

provide a means for developing expectations and mental representations of relationships between events; are important for adaptation and survival

answer

Conditioned Responses

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What determines whether conditioned responses are learned?

answer

Responses develop when one event signals the appearance of another event

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What are the factors that influence learning of Conditioned Responses?

answer

Timing, Predictability, Intensity, Attention, Biopreparedness

question

Conditioning works best when the CS comes before the UCS (bell before the meat

answer

Timing

question

Conditioning works best when the CS always signals the UCS (dog always growls before a bite).

answer

Predictability

question

Conditioning works best when the UCS is strong (ex: a strong shock vs. a weak shock).

answer

Intensity

question

Conditioning works best when there is no other distracting stimuli present.

answer

Attention

question

If the CS is a sight, taste or smell and what UCS follows it. Conditioned taste aversions: Rats being shocked (connect to light or noise) rat being made sick (connect to flavored water).

answer

Biopreparedness

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Studied the consequences of behavior and animal intelligence

answer

Edward L. Thorndike

question

if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded, the same response is more likely to occur when that stimulus is encountered again.

answer

Law of Effect

question

rewards are strengthened when they are "instrumental" in producing rewards.

answer

Instrumental Conditioning

question

Extended and formalized many of Thorndike's ideas; Organisms learn responses by operating on the environment

answer

B.F. Skinner

question

responses are learned on basis of their rewarding or punishing consequences

answer

Operant Conditioning

question

A response that has some effect on the world.

answer

Operant/Operant Resoponse

question

Stimuli that strengthen a response if they follow that response.

answer

Positive Reinforces

question

The removal of unpleasant stimuli

answer

Negative Reinforces

question

The process of learning responses that stop an aversive stimulus.

answer

Escape

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The process of learning particular responses that avoid an aversive stimulus.

answer

Avoidance

question

The reinforcement of responses that come successively closer to some desired response.

answer

Shaping

question

Events or stimuli that satisfy physiological needs basic to survival.

answer

Primary Reinforcers

question

Rewards that people or animals learn to like

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Secondary Reinforcers

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Operant conditioning is stronger when reinforcers appear soon after the response occurs

answer

Timing of reinforcement

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Conditioning is faster when the reinforce is large than when it is small

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Size of reinforcement

question

Why do reinforcers have an effect on the brain?

answer

Stimulation of brain's "pleasure centers"; creates a spike in dopamine levels, which is associated with pleasure

question

What does punishment require?

answer

Frequency of an operant behavior

question

Negative reinforcement always _______ behavior

answer

strengthens

question

Punishment always ________ beavior

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weakens

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What are the drawbacks of punishment?

answer

Does not erase an undesirable behavior; often ineffective; can be aggressive or abusive

question

What are the guidelines for Effective Punishment?

answer

1. Specify why punishment is being given 2. Emphasize that the behavior, not the person, is being punished 3. Punishment should be immediate and noticeable, without being abusive 4. Identify and positively reinforce more appropriate responses

question

learning is not evident when it first occurs (Tolman)

answer

Latent Learning

question

mental representation of some physical arrangement (Tolman)

answer

Cognitive Map

question

a sudden understanding of the problem as a whole (Köhler)

answer

Insight

question

learning by watching others (Bandura)

answer

Observational/ Social Learning

question

fire both when we do something and also when we see someone else do something.

answer

Mirror Neurons

question

adults or peers that show us appropriate behavior.

answer

Influenced by models

question

when a person is influenced by watching or hearing the consequences of others' behaviors.

answer

Vicarious conditioning

question

Why is vicarious conditioning important/

answer

teaches children what behaviors are and are not appropriate.

question

learning

answer

a change in behavior resulting from experience

question

behavorism

answer

john locke, john watson and B.F skinner

question

B.F skinner

answer

operate chamber -- reward shapes behavior

question

john watson

answer

father of behavorism

question

john locke

answer

said that children are born to be anything

question

ivan pavlov

answer

dog salvation test

question

3 methods of learning

answer

non-associative, associative, watching others

question

habuituation

answer

decrease in response

question

sensitization

answer

increase in response

question

non-associative learning

answer

learning about one stimulus

question

associative learning

answer

understanding how two or more pieces of information are related

question

3 ways to learn by watching others

answer

observational, modeling, vicarious

question

observation

answer

change or learn a behavior after watching a person demonstrate it

question

vicarious

answer

depends on rewards and consequences

question

example of habituation

answer

a clicking clock

question

example of sensitization

answer

a clicking pen may annoy you

question

long term potentiation

answer

the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons

question

focused responses during classical conditioning

answer

involuntary responses

question

classical conditioning

answer

a type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response

question

unconditioned stimulus

answer

does not require prior learning

question

unconditioned response

answer

innate or reflexive

question

example of unconditioned stimulus

answer

dog food

question

example of unconditioned response

answer

salavitating

question

conditioned stimulus

answer

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

question

conditioned response

answer

a response to a conditioned stimulus -- a response that has been learned

question

acquisition

answer

the gradual formation of an association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

question

example of conditioned stimulus

answer

ringing a bell before giving dog food

question

example of conditioned response

answer

salavitating

question

extintion

answer

a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus

question

spontaneous recovery

answer

a process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again

question

example of extinition

answer

driving by a location of a car accident produces fear but over time you learn that the location is okay

question

stimulus generalization

answer

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

question

stimulus discrimination

answer

differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

question

second-order conditioning

answer

second conditioned stimulus becomes associated with first conditioned stimulus-- elicits conditioned response when presented alone

question

example of stimulus generalization

answer

instead of a bell a dog starts to salivate at the sound of a person snapping

question

example of second-order conditioning

answer

instead of jumping back when a person says cat and blows air into your eye -- you jump back when a person says cat and plays a piano key

question

phobia

answer

acquired fear that is very strong in comparison to threat

question

systematic desensitization

answer

teaches individuals to become calm and cope with fear

question

operant conditioning

answer

a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future

question

thorndike's general theory of learning

answer

law of effects

question

satisfying state of affairs

answer

behaviors that are likely to be repeated

question

annoying state of affairs

answer

less likely to reoccur

question

reinforcer

answer

stimulus occurs after response and increases likelihood of response reoccuring

question

consequences

answer

determine likelihood of behavior in future

question

skinner box

answer

B.F skinner's experiment with lever delivering food

question

shaping

answer

operant conditioning technique that reinforces behaviors in increasingly similar to desired behaviors

question

example of shaping

answer

dog opening a door -- you reward each step closer

question

primary reinforcers

answer

reinforcers that are necessary for survival

question

secondary reinforcers

answer

events or objects that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs

question

premack principle

answer

more valued activity can reinforce performance of less valued activity

question

example of premack principle

answer

if you eat your veggies you can have desert

question

reinforcement

answer

behavior more likely to be repeated

question

punishment

answer

behavior less likely to occur again

question

positive reinforcement

answer

the addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated

question

negative reinforcement

answer

the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated

question

example of positive reinforcement

answer

adding to increase behavior

question

example of negative reinforcement

answer

taking aspirin or putting on a glove

question

positive punishment

answer

the addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will reoccur

question

negative punishment

answer

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will reoccur

question

example of positive punishment

answer

spanking or drinking lemon juice

question

example of negative punishment

answer

time outs or grounded

question

continuous reinforcement

answer

results in fast learning

question

partial reinforcement

answer

lasting learning

question

fixed interval schedule

answer

reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reward

question

variable interval schedule

answer

reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reward

question

example of fixed interval schedule

answer

cramming before a test -- behavior increases close to time of reward then stars to fade

question

example of variable interval schedule

answer

pop quiz -- behavior increases at a steady rate

question

fixed ratio schedule

answer

reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined number of times

question

variable ration schedule

answer

reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times

question

example of fixed ratio

answer

buying 10 coffees and getting the next one free

question

example of variable ration

answer

slot machines

question

partial reinforcement extinction effect

answer

behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement

question

dopamine

answer

has a biological influence on reinforcing value

question

tolman

answer

psychologist that argued reinforcement impacts performance more than acquisition of knowledge

question

latent learning

answer

learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement

question

observational learning

answer

the acquistion or modification of behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behvaior

question

modeling

answer

the imitation of behavior through observational learning

question

vicarious conditiong

answer

learning the consequences of an action by watching other being rewarded or punished for performing theaction

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