general biology final exam study guide – Flashcards
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describe a compound
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contains two or more elements
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nucleus of the atom
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contain protons and neutrons
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the atomic number of an atom
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the number of protons
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water molecules sticking to water molecules
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cohesion
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neutral pH
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7
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compare pH of one acid to another
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each move is worth 10
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bases
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more OH- ions (hydroxyl ions)
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acids
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more H+ ions (hydrogen ions)
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biological organization from least to most
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molecule, compounds, organelles, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
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DNA
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deoxyribonucleic acid - made of two chains of nucleotides, genes, double helix, 4 different nucleotides (ATCG)
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positive feedback
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childbirth
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negative feedback
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glucose levels and insulin
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hierarchical organization from most to least
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kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
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common ancestory
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universality of DNA
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controlled experiment
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experimental group (altered or tested on) and control group (no experimental treatment)
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hierarchy levels from most to least
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biosphere, ecosystem, community, populations, organisms, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle
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dynamics of the ecosystem
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energy from the sun to producers to consumers and nutrients recycle
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prokaryote vs eukaryote
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only thing in common is cell membrane, ribosomes, DNA, cytoplasm
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prokaryotic vs eukaryotic
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difference pro means no nucleus and no membrane bound organelles
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enzymes
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regulate chemical reactions - speed up reactions
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branch of science dealing with classifying organisms
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taxonomy
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domain bacteria and archae
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contains all prokaryotes
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domain eukarya
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contains all eukaryotes
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four most common elements
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C,H,O, and N
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matter
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has mass, composed of elements, occupies space, composes everything
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number of electrons
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is equal to the number of protons
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atomic weight
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addition of protons and neutrons
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isotopes
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extra neutrons
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covalent bond
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shares electrons
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ionic bond
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transfer electrons
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buffer
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maintains pH by donating H+ when there are not enough and accepting H+ ions when there are too many
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acid precipitation
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has a pH below 5.6, rain, snow, burning fossil fuels, damages wilderness (soil included)
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organic compounds
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contains carbon
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water property - polarity and oil property - nonpolarity
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so it does not mix
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isomers
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same molecules but arranged differently
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carboxyl group
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COOH
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dehydration synthesis
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making a large molecule from smaller molecules (remove water)
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polymers
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large molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids)
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sugars
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end in ose
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enzymes
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end in ase
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monosaccharide
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simple sugar
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disaccharide
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two monosaccharides together
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polysaccharides
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three or more monosaccharides
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triglycerides
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three fatty acid tails and one glycerol, hydrophobic (will not dissolve in water, energy, fats)
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proteins
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collagen, hormones, enzymes
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lipids
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steroids, cholesterol
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nucleic acid
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DNA and RNA
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proteins are
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made of amino acids in specific sequence or order
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peptide bonds
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found between amino acids / makes a protein
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the shape of a protein
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conformation
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the change in shape of a protein
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denature (changes in pH, temperature, and salt concentration
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primary structure of protein
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sequence of amino acids
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secondary structure of protein
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primary twisted forms alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
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tertiary structure of protein
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secondary turned on itself
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quaternary structure of protein
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four chains together (globular)
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nucleotide
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contains sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous bases, forms nucleic acids
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D N A
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double stranded, contains ATCG, deoxyribose sugar
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RNA
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single stranded, contains AUCG, ribose sugar
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scanning electron microscope
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looks at cell surfaces (external)
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transmission electron microscope
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looks at the inside of the cell (internal)
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nucleoid region
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location of DNA inside prokaryote cell
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chromatin
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long strands of DNA
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chromosomes
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short strands of DNA
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sister chromatids
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pieces of a duplicated chromosomes
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nucleolus
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inside the nucleus and makes ribosomes
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endomembrane system
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interrelated membranes within the cell
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Golgi
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packages proteins (ups)
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lysosomes
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digests wastes or worn cell parts, destroys bacteria
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central vacuole
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increases size of the plant cell, stores pigments, stores waste products, stores poisons
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chloroplasts
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photosynthesis
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mitochondria
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cellular respiration (energy)
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anchoring junctions
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holds cells to anchor
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tight junctions
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holds cells together to form a tissue
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communicating junctions
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cells talk to one another
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plasmodesmata
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found in cell walls, cell junction in plant cells, carry nutrients from one plant cell to another
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carbon
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forms covalent bonds, bonds with four other atoms, branched, straight
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hydrocarbons
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contains only hydrogens and carbons
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hydroxyl group
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OH makes alcohols
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amino group
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NH2--makes proteins
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amino acids
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contain COOH (carboxyl) and NH2 (amine)
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Dehydration Synthesis
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removing water to build up a molecule
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hydrolysis
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adding water to break down a molecule
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unsaturated fatty acids
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double bonds between carbon atoms / good for you / plant oils / kink in tail prevents build up / liquids at room temperature
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saturated fatty acids
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no double bonds between carbon atoms / bad for you / animal fats / solids at room temperature
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phospholipid
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two fatty acids, phosphate, and glycerol
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most important part of the DNA
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genetic sequence of nucleotides
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resolution
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clearness or sharpness of the image
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magnification
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increases the size of the image
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contractile vacuoles
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acts like kidneys to prevent cells from bursting
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makes fatty acids and detoxifies alcohol
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smooth ER
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breaks down hydrogen peroxide
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peroxisomes
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glycoproteins and glycolipids
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cell recognition to recognize same cells or different cells
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signal transduction
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relaying a message from outside the cell to inside the cell
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isotonic
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cell remains the same
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hypertonic
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more solute / cell will shrivel or crenate
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hypotonic
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less solute / cell will lysis or expand
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passive transport
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requires no energy / particles move with the concentration gradient / from high concentration to low concentration / downhill
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active transport
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requires energy / particles move against the concentration gradient / from low concentration to high concentration / uphill
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diffusion
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any particle can move / passive transport
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facilitated diffusion
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particle must move through a channel / passive transport
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endocytosis
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cell brings particles into the cell / active transport
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exocytosis
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cell removes particles (waste, hormones, etc.) / active transport
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phagocytosis
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cell eats / active transport / endocytosis
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pinocytosis
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cell drinks / active transport / endocytosis
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osmosis
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movement of water only / passive transport
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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energy cannot be created or destroyed
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the transfer of phosphate from one molecule to another
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phosphorylation
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plasma membrane
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proteins and phospholipids
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cholesterol
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helps stabilize the cell at different temperatures
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selectively permeable
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allows certain things to enter and certain things to exit
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exergonic
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release energy
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endergonic
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input energy
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active site
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place on enzyme where substrate will bind
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competitive inhibition
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competitor binds to the active site and turns the enzyme off
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noncompetitive inhibition
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competitor binds to another site on the enzyme other than the active site and turns the enzyme off
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asexual reproduction
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mitosis / one parent / two cells which are identical to one another and the original parent cell / binary fission in bacteria
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sexual reproduction
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meiosis / two parents / four cells are produced which are different from one another and the original cell / genetic diversity
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interphase
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G1, S, G2-- cell grows and the DNA duplicates / cell is preparing for mitosis / cells spend 90% of their time
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mitosis
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prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase / nucleus divides
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prophase
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chromosomes are beginning to show / centrioles are present / nuclear membrane disappears / spindle fibers appear / longest stage of mitosis
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metaphase
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chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
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anaphase
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chromosomes begin to move apart
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telophase
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the cell begins to split into (cell plate for a plant and cleavage furrow for an animal cell)
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cytokinesis
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the cell completely splits in two and two new cells are produced / cytoplasm splits
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density
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dependent inhibition - cells stop growing once the cells have no more room
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chromosomes that have the same traits in the same positions
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homologous chromosomes
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karyotypes
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images of all the chromosomes of the cell which can reveal abnormal numbers of chromosomes
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fragment of a chromosome that breaks off and reattaches in the reverse direction
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inversion
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centromere
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middle of the chromosome where the two sister chromatids are held together
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non-dividing stage of nerve and muscle cells
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G0
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prophase I
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genetic diversity / crossing-over / tetrads / synapsis
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two pieces of a duplicated chromosome
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sister chromatids
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benign tumor
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does not metastasize / not deadly
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malignant tumor
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metastasize / deadly
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nondisjunction
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chromosomes do not separate like they should
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virchow
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every cell comes from a previous cell
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virus that infects bacteria
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phage
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shape of DNA
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double helix / twisted ladder
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enzyme that elongates DNA
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DNA polymerase
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flow of information from gene to protein
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DNA, RNA, protein
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triplet codon
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consists of three nucleotides
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translation
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process of changing nucleic acids into a protein
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mutagen
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changes the sequence of DNA / can be chemical or physical
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lytic cycle of a virus
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the host cell will lysis or explode
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retrovirus
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HIV virus / damages white blood cells
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Watson and Crick
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discovered DNA structure
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Hershey and Chase
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experimented to prove that DNA is the genetic material of bacteriophages (viruses)
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Griffith
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experimented to prove that DNA is the genetic material of bacteria
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bases of DNA pair as follows
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A pairs with T and C pairs with G
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bases of RNA pair as follows
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A pairs with U and C pairs with G
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DNA replication
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called a semiconservative / new strand is made of half a new and half an old / only add new nucleotides (letters) to the 5' growing end
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transcription
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making RNA from DNA
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RNA polymerase
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makes RNA polymer
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terminator
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marks the end and stops the making of the gene
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correct order
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codon recognition, peptide formation, translocation, termination
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reverse transcriptase
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enzyme used by HIV virus
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transformation
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bacterial strains change from one form to another
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conjugation
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bacteria acquires DNA from surrounding environment
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R plasmids
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genetic information within the bacteria that allow is to be resistant to antibiotics
