Foundations of Reading – Flashcards

Focuses on observable changes in behavior • Views the teacher's role as providing information and supervising practice • Describes learning as the result of stimulus-response actions • Uses incentives and rewards for motivation

Describes learning as the active construction of knowledge • Recognizes the importance of background knowledge • Views learners as innately curious • Advocates collaboration, not competition • Suggests ways to engage students so they can be successful

Emphasizes the importance of language and social interaction on learning • Views reading and writing as social and cultural activities • Explains that students learn best through authentic activities • Describes the teacher's role as scaffolding students' learning • Advocates culturally responsive teaching • Challenges students to confront injustices and inequities in society

Compares the mind to a computer • Recommends integrating reading and writing • Views reading and writing as meaning-making processes • Explains that readers' interpretations are individualized • Describes students as strategic readers and writers •

Teachers are more successful when they take the first 2 weeks of the school year to establish the classroom environment;Teachers explicitly explain classroom routines, such as how to get supplies out and put them away and how to work with classmates in a cooperative group, and they set the expectation that students will adhere to the routines. They demonstrate literacy procedures, including how to choose a book, how to provide feedback about a class-mate's writing, and how to participate in a grand conversation. Third, teachers model ways of interacting with students, respecting classmates, and assisting them with reading and writing projects.

The balanced approach to instruction is based on a comprehensive view of literacy that combines explicit instruction, guided practice, collaborative learning, and independent reading and writing. (Should I include the characteristics and components on Pg. 19?)

Basal Reading Program, Literature Focus Units, Literature Circles, Reading and Writing Workshops

Students read textbooks containing stories, informational articles, and poems that are sequenced according to grade level. Teachers follow directions in the teacher's guide to teach word identification, vocabulary, comprehension, grammar, and writing lessons. Directions are also provided for working with English learners and struggling students.

Teachers and students read and respond to a book together as a class. They choose high- quality literature that is appropriate for the grade level and students' interests. The book may be too difficult for some students to read on their own, so teachers read it aloud or use shared reading. After reading students usually create projects.

Teachers choose five or six books and collect multiple copies of each one. Students each choose the book they want to read and form circles or " book clubs" to read and respond to the book. They develop a reading and discussion schedule and assume roles for the discussion. Teachers sometimes participate in the discussions.

Students choose books and read and respond to them independently during reading workshop and write books on self- selected topics during writing workshop. Teachers monitor students' work through conferences. During a sharing period, students share with classmates the books they read and the books they write. Teachers also teach minilessons on reading and writing strategies and skills

By using informal assessment tools such as: Observation of students as they participate in instructional activities . Running records of students' oral reading to analyze their ability to solve reading problems . Examination of students' work . Conferences to talk with students about their reading and writing . Checklists to monitor students' learning . Rubrics to assess students' writing and other activities. Also, through high-stakes standardized testing.

Prereading, reading, responding, exploring, applying

The reading process begins before readers open a book. The first stage, prereading, occurs as readers prepare to read. As readers get ready to read, they activate background knowledge, set purposes, and make plans for reading.

Students read the book or other selection in the reading stage. Outside of school, most people usually read silently and independently, but in the classroom, teachers and students use five types of reading: . Independent reading . Buddy reading . Guided reading . Shared reading . Reading aloud to students

Students respond to what they've read and continue to negotiate the meaning after reading. This stage reflects Rosenblatt's ( 2005) transactive theory. Two ways that stu-dents make tentative and exploratory comments immediately after reading are by writing in reading logs and participating in grand conversations or other discussions.

Students go back into the text to examine it more analytically. This stage is more teacher directed than the others; it reflects the teacher- centered theory. Students reread the selection or excerpts from it, examine the author's craft, and focus on words and sentences from the selection. Teachers also teach minilessons on strate-gies and skills.

Readers extend their comprehension, reflect on their understanding, and value the reading experience in this final stage. Often they create projects to apply what they've learned, and these projects take many forms, including open- mind por-traits, essays, readers theatre performances, and PowerPoint presentations.

Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing, and Publishing

Prewriting is the " getting ready to write" stage. During prewriting, students choose a topic, consider purpose and form, and gather and organize ideas for writing.

Students get their ideas down on paper and write a first draft of their compositions in this stage. Because they don't begin writing with their pieces already composed in their minds, students begin tentatively with the ideas they've developed through prewriting activities. Their drafts are usually messy, reflecting the outpouring of ideas with cross- outs, lines, and arrows as they think of better ways to express ideas. Students write quickly, with little concern about legible handwriting, spelling correctness, and careful use of capitalization and punctuation.

During the revising stage, writers refine ideas in their compositions. Students often break the writing process cycle as soon as they complete a rough draft, believing that once they have jotted down their ideas, the writing task is complete. Experienced writ-ers, however, know they must turn to others for reactions and revise on the basis of these comments. Revision is not just polishing; it is meeting the needs of readers by adding, substituting, deleting, and rearranging material. Revision means " seeing again," and in this stage, writers see their compositions again with the help of classmates and the teacher. Revising consists of three activities: rereading the rough draft, sharing the rough draft in a writing group, and revising on the basis of feedback.

Editing is putting the piece of writing into its final form. Until this stage, the focus has been primarily on the content of students' writing. Once the focus changes to mechan-ics, students polish their writing by correcting spelling mistakes and other mechanical errors. Mechanics are the commonly accepted conventions of written Standard English; they consist of capitalization, punctuation, spelling, sentence structure, usage, and formatting considerations specific to poems, scripts, letters, and other writing gen-res. The use of these commonly accepted conventions is a courtesy to those who will read the composition. Students are more efficient editors if they set the composition aside for a few days before beginning to edit. After working so closely with a piece of writing during draft-ing and revising, they're too familiar with it to notice many mechanical errors. With the distance gained by waiting a few days, students are better able to approach editing with a fresh perspective and gather the enthusiasm necessary to finish the writing process. Then students move through two activities in the editing stage: proofreading to locate errors and correcting the ones they find.

In this stage, students bring their compositions to life by writing final copies and by sharing them orally with an appropriate audience. When they share their writing with real audiences of classmates, other students, parents, and the community, students come to think of themselves as authors. Publication is powerful: Students are moti-vated not only to continue writing but also to improve the quality of their writing through revising and editing ( Weber, 2002).

Reading and writing are reciprocal; they're both constructive, meaning- making processes. Researchers have found that reading leads to better writing, and writing has the same effect on reading ( Spivey, 1997). Not surprisingly, they've also learned that integrating instruction improves both reading and writing ( Tierney & Shanahan, 1991). It's possible that students use the same type of thinking for both reading and writing ( Braunger & Lewis, 2006). Readers participate in many of the same activities that writers use— activating background knowledge, setting purposes, determining importance, monitoring, repairing, and evaluating.

Involve students in daily reading and writing experiences. . Introduce the reading and writing processes in kindergarten. . Plan instruction that reflects the developmental nature of reading and writing. . Make the reading- writing connection explicit to students. . Emphasize both the processes and the products of reading and writing. . Set clear purposes for reading and writing. . Teach reading and writing through authentic literacy experiences.

Readability Formulas, Leveled Books, The Lexile Framework (should we be actually able to describe each?)

Student work samples, Running records, Informal Reading Inventories (should we be actually able to describe each?)

Portfolios are systematic and meaningful collections of artifacts documenting students' literacy development over a period of time ( Hebert, 2001). These collections are dynamic and reflect students' day- to- day reading and writing activities as well as content- area activities. Students' work samples provide " windows" on the strategies they use as readers and writers. Not only do students select pieces to be placed in their portfolios, they also learn to establish criteria for their selections. Because of students' involvement in selecting pieces for their portfolios and reflecting on them, portfolio assessment respects students and their abilities. Portfolios help students, teachers, and parents see patterns of growth from one literacy milestone to another in ways that are not possible with other types of assessment.

. Teachers check that their state's curriculum standards align with their instructional program and make any needed adjustments to ensure that they're teaching what's going to be on the test. . Teachers set goals with students and use informal assessments to regularly moni-tor their progress. . Teachers actively engage students in authentic literacy activities so that they become capable readers and writers. . Teachers explain the purpose of the tests and how the results will be used, without making students anxious. . Teachers stick with a balanced approach that combines explicit instruction and authentic application.

Through concepts about print, words, and the alphabet teachers help foster young childrens interest in literacy and teacching concepts about the written language.

Preschool and kindergarten teachers demonstrate the purposes of written lan-guage and provide opportunities for children to experiment with reading and writing in many ways: Posting signs in the classroom Making a list of classroom rules Using reading and writing materials in literacy play centers Exchanging messages with classmates Reading and writing stories Labeling classroom items Drawing and writing in journals Writing notes to parents Young children learn other concepts about print through these activities, too: They learn book- orientation concepts, including how to hold a book and turn pages, and that the text, not the illustrations, carries the message. Children also learn directionality concepts— that print is written and read from left to right and from top to bottom on a page. They match voice to print, pointing word by word to the text as it is read aloud. Children also notice punctuation marks and learn their names and their purposes.

Children develop concepts about words through active participation in literacy activities. They watch as teachers point to words in big books during shared reading, and they mimic the teacher and point to words as they reread familiar texts. After many, many shared reading experiences, children notice that word boundaries are marked with spaces, and they pick out familiar words. With experience, children's pointing becomes more exact, and they become more proficient at picking out spe-cific words in the text, noticing that words at the beginning of sentences are marked with capital letters and words at the end of sentences are followed with punctuation marks.

Teachers begin teaching letters of the alphabet using two sources of words— children's own names and environmental print. They teach the ABC song to provide children with a strategy for identifying the name of an unknown letter. Children learn to sing this song and point to each letter on an alphabet chart until they reach the unfa-miliar one; this is a very useful strategy because it gives them a real sense of indepen-dence in identifying letters. Teachers also provide routines, activities, and games for talking about and manipulating letters. During these familiar, predictable activities, teachers and children say letter names, manipulate magnetic letters, and write letters on dry- erase boards. At first, the teacher structures and guides the activities, but with experience, the children internalize the routine and do it independently, often at a lit-eracy center. Figure 4- 1 presents 10 routines to teach the letters of the alphabet.

Children gain an understanding of the communicative purpose of print and develop an interest in reading and writing during the emergent stage. They notice environmental print in the world around them and develop concepts about print as teachers read and write with them. As children dictate stories for the teacher to record, for example, they learn that their speech can be written down, and they observe how teachers write from left to right and top to bottom.

This stage marks children's growing awareness of the alphabetic principle. Children learn about phoneme- grapheme correspondences, phonics rules in words such as run, hand, this, make, day, and road, and word families, including - ill ( fill, hill, will ) and - ake ( bake, make, take). They also apply ( and misapply) their developing phonics knowledge to spell words. For example, they spell night as NIT and train as TRANE. At the same time, they're learning to read and write high- frequency words, many of which can't be sounded out, such as what, are, and there.

The third stage marks children's move into fluent reading and writing. Fluent readers recognize hundreds and hundreds of words automatically and have the tools to iden-tify unfamiliar words when reading. Fluent writers use the writing process to draft, revise, and publish their writing and participate in writing groups. They're familiar with a variety of genres and know how to organize their writing. They use conven-tional spelling and other written language conventions, including capital letters and punctuation marks.

Use environmental print. • Include literacy materials in play centers. • Read aloud to children. • Read big books and poems on charts using shared reading. • Introduce the title and author of books before reading. Have children use crayons for drawing and pencils for writing. • Encourage children to use scribble writing or write random letters if they can't do more conventional writing. • Teach handwriting skills. • Use interactive writing for whole- class and small-group writing projects.

Read charts of poems and songs using choral reading. • Read leveled books using guided reading. • Provide daily opportunities to read and reread books independently. • Teach phonics concepts and rules. • Teach children to cross- check using the cueing systems. Use interactive writing to teach concepts about print and spelling rules. • Provide daily opportunities to write for a variety of purposes and using different genres. • Introduce the writing process. • Teach children to develop a single idea in their compositions. • Teach children to proofread their compositions.

Have children participate in literature circles. • Have children participate in reading workshop. • Teach about genres and literary features. • Involve children in author studies. • Teach children to make text- to- self, text- to- world, and text- to- text connections. Have children participate in writing workshop. • Teach children to use the writing process. • Teach children to revise and edit their writing. • Teach paragraphing skills. • Teach spelling rules. • Teach homophones. • Teach synonyms.

not too sure what to say on this one yet

Phonemic awareness is children's basic understanding that speech is composed of a series of individual sounds, and it provides the foundation for phonics and spelling. Cunningham and Allington ( 2007) describe phonemic awareness as children's ability to " take words apart, put them back together again, and change them" ( p. 37). The emphasis is on the sounds of spoken words, not on reading letters or pronouncing letter names.

A clear connection exists between phonemic awareness and learning to read; researchers have concluded that phonemic awareness is a prerequisite for learning to read. As they become phonemically aware, children recognize that speech can be segmented into smaller units; this knowledge is very useful as they learn about sound- symbol correspondences and spelling patterns ( Cunningham, 2007). Children can be explicitly taught to segment and blend speech, and those who receive approximately 20 hours of training in phonemic awareness do better in both reading and spelling. Moreover, phonemic awareness has been shown to be the most powerful pre-dictor of later reading achievement.

Phonics is a controversial topic. Some parents and politicians, as well as even a few teach-ers, believe that most of our educational ills could be solved if children were taught to read using phonics. A few people still argue that phonics is a complete reading program, but that view ignores what we know about the interrelatedness of the four cueing systems. Reading is a complex process, and the phonological system works in conjunction with the semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic systems, not in isolation. The controversy now centers on the best way to teach phonics. Marilyn Adams ( 1990), in her landmark review of the research on phonics instruction, recommends that phonics be taught within a balanced approach that integrates instruction in reading strategies and skills with meaningful opportunities for reading and writing. She emphasizes that phonics instruction should focus on the most useful informa-tion for identifying words, that it should be systematic and intensive, and that it should be completed by third grade.

Emergent Spelling, Letter-Name Alphabetic Spelling, Within word Patter Spelling, Syllables and Affixes Spelling, Derivation Relations Spelling

Children string scribbles, letters, and letterlike forms together, but they don't associate the marks they make with any specific phonemes. This stage is typical of 3- to 5- year- olds. Children learn these concepts:

Children learn to represent phonemes in words with letters. At first, their spellings are quite abbreviated, but they learn to use consonant blends and digraphs and short- vowel patterns to spell many short- vowel words. Spellers are 5- to 7- year- olds.

Students learn long- vowel patterns and r- controlled vowels, but they may confuse spelling patterns and spell meet as mete, and they reverse the order of letters, such as form for from and gril for girl. Spellers are 7- to 9- year- olds,

Students apply what they have learned about one- syllable words to spell longer words, and they learn to break words into syllables. They also learn to add inflectional endings ( e. g., - es, - ed, - ing) and to differentiate between homophones, such as your- you're. Spellers are often 9- to 11- year- olds,

Students explore the relationship between spelling and meaning and learn that words with related meanings are often related in spelling despite changes in sound ( e. g., wise- wisdom, sign- signal, nation- national). They also learn about Latin and Greek root words and derivational affixes ( e. g., amphi-, pre-, - able, - tion). Spellers are 11- to 14- year- olds.

Word Walls, Teacher Word Recognition (are there more?)

Phonic Analysis, Decoding by Analogy, Syllabic Analysis, Morphemic Analysis

Students apply their knowledge of sound- symbol correspondences, phonics rules, and spelling patterns to read or write a word.

Students use their knowledge of phonograms to deduce the pronunciation or spelling of an unfamiliar word.

Students break a multisyllabic word into syllables and then use their knowledge of phonics and phonograms to decode the word, syllable by syllable.

Analysis Students apply their knowledge of root words and affixes to read or write an unfamiliar word. trans- port

Round Robin, Reading Practice, Teaching Prosody, Enhancing Accuracy

Students become fluent writers as they practice writing, and they need opportuni-ties for both assisted and unassisted practice. Writing on dry- erase boards during interactive writing lessons is one example of assisted writing practice ( Tompkins, 2008). The teacher and classmates provide support for students. Quickwriting. Peter Elbow ( 1998) recommends using quickwriting to develop writing fluency.

It seems obvious that to learn words at such a prolific rate, students learn words both in and outside of school, and they learn most words incidentally, not through explicit instruction. Reading has the greatest impact on students' vocabulary development, but other activities are important, too. For example, students learn words through family activities, hobbies, and vacations. Television also has a significant impact on vocabulary development, especially when students view educational programs and limit the amount of time they spend watching television each day.

Vocabulary knowledge and reading achievement are closely related: Students with larger vocabularies are more capable readers, and they know more strategies for figur-ing out the meanings of unfamiliar words than less capable readers do ( Graves, 2006). Reading widely is the best way students learn new words, and that's one reason why capable readers have larger vocabularies: They simply do more reading, both in school and out of school. The idea that capable readers learn more vocabulary because they read more is an example of the Matthew effect ( Stanovich, 1986), which suggests that " the rich get richer and the poor get poorer" in vocabulary development and other components of reading. Capable readers become better readers because they read more, and the books they read are more challenging, with sophisticated vocabulary words. The gulf between more capable and less capable readers grows larger because less capable read-ers read less and the books they read aren't as challenging.

. Immerse students in words through listening, talking, reading, and writing . Teach specific words through active involvement and multiple encounters with words . Teach word- learning strategies so students can figure out the meanings of unfa-miliar words . Develop students' word consciousness, their awareness of and interest in words

Multiple Meanings of Words- Many words have more than one meaning. For some words, multiple meanings develop for the noun and verb forms, but some-times additional meanings develop in other ways. The word bank, for example, has several meanings. Synonyms - Words With the Same Meaning. Words that have nearly the same meaning as other words are synonyms. Antonyms: Words That Mean the Opposite. Words that express opposite meanings are antonyms. Homonyms: Words That Confuse. Homonyms are confusing because even though these words have different meanings, they're either pronounced the same or spelled the same as other words. Etymologies: The History of the English Language. Glimpses into the history of the English language provide interesting information about word meanings and spellings Figurative Meanings of Words. Many words have both literal and figurative meanings: Literal meanings are the explicit, dictionary meanings, and figurative mean-ings are metaphorical or use figures of speech.

Reader factors include the background knowledge that readers bring to the reading process as well as the strategies they use while reading and their motivation and engagement during reading. Text factors include the author's ideas, the words the author uses to express those ideas, and how the ideas are organized and presented.

Comprehension strategies are thoughtful behaviors that students use to facilitate their understanding as they read ( Afflerbach, Pearson, & Paris, 2008). Some strategies are cognitive— they involve thinking; others are metacognitive— students reflect on their thinking. For example, readers make predictions about a story when they begin reading: They wonder what will happen to the characters and whether they'll enjoy the story. Predicting is a cognitive strategy because it involves thinking. Readers also monitor their reading, and monitoring is a metacognitive strategy. They notice whether they're understanding; and if they're confused, they take action to solve the problem. List of Strategies: Activating background knowledge . Predicting . Connecting . Questioning . Determining importance . Repairing . Drawing inferences . Setting a purpose . Evaluating . Summarizing . Monitoring . Visualizing

Less successful readers exemplify few of the characteristics of capable readers or behave differently when they are reading and writing. Perhaps the most remarkable dif-ference is that more capable readers view reading as a process of comprehending or cre-ating meaning, whereas less capable readers focus on decoding. In writing, less capable writers make cosmetic changes when they revise, rather than changes to communicate meaning more effectively. These important differences indicate that capable students focus on comprehension and the strategies readers and writers use to understand what they read and to make sure that what they write will be comprehensible to others. Another important difference between capable and less capable readers and writers is that those who are less successful aren't strategic. They are naive. They seem reluctant to use unfamiliar strategies or those that require much effort. They don't seem to be motivated or to expect that they'll be successful. Less capable readers and writers don't understand or use all stages of the reading and writing processes effec-tively. They don't monitor their reading and writing ( Keene & Zimmermann, 2007). Or, if they do use strategies, they remain dependent on primitive ones. For example, as they read, less successful readers seldom look ahead or back into the text to clarify misunderstandings or make plans. Or, when they come to an unfamiliar word, they often stop reading, unsure of what to do. They may try to sound out an unfamiliar word, but if that's unsuccessful, they give up. In contrast, capable readers know a vari-ety of strategies, and if one strategy isn't successful, they try another. Less capable writers move through the writing process in a lockstep, linear approach. They use a limited number of strategies, most often a " knowledge- telling" strategy in which they write everything they know about a topic with little thought to choosing infor-mation to meet the needs of their readers or to organizing the information to put related ideas together ( Faigley et al., 1985). In contrast, capable writers understand the recursive nature of the writing process and turn to classmates for feedback about how well they're communicating. They are more responsive to the needs of the audience that will read their writing, and they work to organize their writing in a cohesive manner.

Teachers teach individual comprehen-sion strategies and then show students how to integrate several strategies simultane-ously ( Block & Pressley, 2007). They introduce each comprehension strategy in a series of minilessons. Teachers describe the strategy, model it for students as they read a text aloud, use it collaboratively with students, and provide opportunities for guided and then independent practice ( Duke & Pearson, 2002); the independent practice is important because it's motivational. The minilesson feature on page 272 shows how Mrs. Macadangdang teaches her third graders to use the questioning strategy. Teachers also support students' learning about comprehension strategies in other ways: Figure 8- 5 suggests several activities for each strategy. Second graders practice questioning by asking questions instead of giving answers during a grand conversa-tion, for example, and sixth graders practice connecting when they write favorite quotes in one column of a double- entry journal and then explain in the second column why each quote is meaningful. When teachers involve students in these activities, it's important to explain that students will be practicing a particular strategy as they com-plete an activity so that they think about what they're doing and how it's helping them to comprehend better.

Plot, Characters, Setting, Point of View, Theme

Description, Sequence, Comparison, Cause-Effect, Problem Solution

Rhymed Verse, Narrative Poetry, Haiku, Free Verse, Odes, Concrete Poems

Researchers have documented that when teachers teach students about text factors, their comprehension increases ( Fisher, Frey, & Lapp, 2008; Sweet & Snow, 2003). In addition, when students are familiar with the genres, organizational patterns, and literary devices in books they're reading, they're better able to create those text factors in their own writing ( Buss & Karnowski, 2002). It's not enough to focus on stories, however; students need to learn about a variety of genres.