First Lecture Exam Test Questions – Flashcards
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The last part of the corpus callosum to form
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Rostrum
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Health
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More than just the absence of disease
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When does the nervous system start to develop?
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7th hour after fertilization
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Homeostasis
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A key concept in physiology, status quo or close to
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Neurophysiology
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The restoration of proper functioning of the nervous system and its control over the other body systems : homeostasis
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How many cells in the human body
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100 trillion
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Tissue
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Different types of cells with the same intercellular substance
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Organs
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Two or more different types of tissues make up an organ
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System
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Different organs having a common function
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4 primary classes of tissue
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Muscular, Nervous, Connective, Epithilial
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How many neurons in the nervous system?
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1 trillion
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How many neurons in the brain
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100 billion
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What is the language on the neurons?
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Action Potential
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What is the function of neuroglia
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To protect, support and nourish neurons
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3 types of muscular tissue
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Smooth, Cardiac and Skeletal
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Walter Cannon
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Coined the term HOMEOSTASIS
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Where do all the vital processes occur?
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the cell
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Systems of the body
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GI system, Respiratory System, Urinary System, CV System, Reproductive System, Nervous System, Lymphatic and Immune System
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What are the 3 ''regulators'' of the body
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1. Nervous system 2. Renal system 3. Endocrine system
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What is the internal environment of the body?
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ECF or internal milieu
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What is the function of ECF?
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Take oxygen and nutrients to the cells. Takes waste products away from the cells.
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The sat_flash_1s of the ECF is transfered to what?
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The ICF = intracellular fluid
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Name different types of ECF
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1. Interstitial fluid 2. Blood plasma 3. Lymphatic fluid 4. Pleural fluid 5. Pericardial fluid 6. Cochlear and ocular fluids 7. Fluid of the tunic of the testes
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Fluid components of the body
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1. ECF 2. ICF
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What percent of the body weight is ECF?
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20%
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What are the two components of ECF?
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Interstitial Fluid (ISF) Blood Plasma
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Interstitial Fluid
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ECF outside of the vascular system, bathing the cells
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What percent of the body is ISF?
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15%
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What is the total blood volume?
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Approx 5,1 L
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What percent of body weight is blood plasma?
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5%
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What is ICF?
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Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleoplasm
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What percent of the body weight is ICF?
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40%
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What percentage of the body weight are the other components?
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40%
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True or False: ECF is in constant motion?
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True
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How is the ECF transported?
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Blood stream
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Why is ECF so important?
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It is the reservoir for the needed nutrients and ions for the sustenance of life
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What are the ions found in ECF?
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Ca, Na, Cl and HCO3
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What are the gases found in ECF?
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O2, CO2
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What are the nutrients found in ECF?
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Glucose (90 mgdl) Fats
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What is the pH of ECF?
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7.4
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What are the ions found in the ICF?
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K, PO4, Mg
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What are the nutrients found in the ICF?
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Proteins
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What is the pH of the ICF?
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7
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Name a few of the control systems in the body
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1. pH regulation 2. Blood pressure regulation 3. Blood glucose regulation 4. Hormone regulation
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What are feedback loops?
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Monitors a condition, reports it to a central control region (feed back) and then effect a change
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Components of a feedback loop
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1. Receptor 2. Control Center 3. Effector
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Receptor component
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Variable are monitored by sensors
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What are sensors?
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Sensory receptors; afferent nerve fibers
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What is a controlled condition?
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A desired value or set point
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A receptor sends information to what?
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The control center
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What changes a set point?
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A stimulus
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What is a stimulus?
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Anything that changes a set point
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Example of feedback loops
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Body temperature: receptors in the skin send the message to the hypothalamus to adjust. Blood pressure: Baroreceptors in the skin control BP.
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Control Center
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Receives sensory input and compares it to a set point
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What does an error signal in the control center do?
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Activates the effector organ
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What is an effector organ?
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An organ or tissue
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What are the 2 types of feedback loops?
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Positive and Negative
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Negative feedback loop
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A process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that reverses that change.
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Is a negative feedback loop and open or closed system?
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Closed
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Positive feedback loop
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Self amplifying cycle; a physiological change leads to greater change in the same direction
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Positive feedback loops that are usefull
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1. Labor 2. Hemostasis 3. Nerve impulse generation
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Nerve impulse generation
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A stimulus causes cationic channels (Na) to suddenly open and changes the membrane potential, more Na channels open, more Na ions enter thus conducting the nerve impulses
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In multicellular organisms, is there a direct exchange of nutrients and O2?
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No
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Cells use nutrients in chemical reactions to do what?
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1. Build bigger compounds 2. Produce energy
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What processes are used when the cells use nutrients in chemical reactions?
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1. Anabolic 2. Catabolic
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Why do cells produce energy?
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Work, reactions, heart beat, motion, etc.
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What are the major nutrients necessary for the body cells?
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Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water
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How do we get oxygen into the cells?
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Breath!!
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What does the blood carry in addition to oxygen and carbon dioxide?
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Absorbed nutrients, interferon, RBC, WBC, antibodies, hormones, proteins
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What are the organs responsible for altering nutrients to make them more easily absorbed?
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Endocrine, Kidneys and Adipose tissue
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Why do muscles produce movement?
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To get food!
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What are the functions of the skeletal muscles?
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Protection, locomotion, heat production
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What does metabolic reactions produce?
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Waste, toxic substances
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Which body systems are involved in excretion?
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Kidneys, Integumentary, urinary, Digestive, repiratory
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How many liters of blood are filtered through the kidneys per minute?
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5,1L
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What is the rate of filtration of the blood through the kidneys per day?
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180 L per day
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Is CO2 removed by kidney filtration?
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No
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What are the waste material associated with kidney filtration?
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Urea, uric acid, excess ions, water
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Materials reabsorbed though the renal tubules include:
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Glucose, ions, water
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True or False: RBCs and proteins are filtered by the kidneys?
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False
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Factors of internal environment that must be homeostatically maintained are:
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1. Nutrient concentration (responsible for energy) 2. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide concentration 3. Waste product concentration 4. pH 5. Salts and ion concentration 6. Temperature
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The two systems that play a central, coordinated role in homeostasis are what?
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1. Nervous system 2. Endocrine system
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Roles of the Nervous and Endocrine systems
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1. Detect changes in organ systems 2. Modifies its physiology 3. Coordinates hoerostasis
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Anatomic subdivision of the nervous system
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CNS and PNS
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CNS
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Brain and spinal cord
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PNS
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Afferent and Efferent nerve fibers
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Physiological subdivisions of the nervous system
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Sensory input portion, Integrative portion, Motor output (responsive portion)
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Sensory subdivision of the nervous system
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Conducts sensory information to the CNS and it detects stimuli that originate from outside the body and within the organs (BP = baroreptors)
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Integrative portion of the Nervous System
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The brain and interneurons (bridge the gap between sensory and motor neurons)
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Motor subdivision of the nervous system
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Innervates the effector organs
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Endocrine system
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Eight glands that secrete hormones
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Ductless glands
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Secrete hormones, hormones reach the target cells, hormones regulate the target organ function
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Two types of hormones
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1. Protein 2. Lipids
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What are the 2 types of temperature?
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Core Temps and Shell Temp
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Which temperature is more important?
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Core Temp
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What is responsible for production of heat?
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Catabolic reactions
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If one mole of glucose is oxydized, how much energy is released through ATP and through heat?
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ATP = 219 kcal Heat = 467kcal
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Performance of work and ATP utilization
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Joint friction, blood flow, brain, liver, heart, endocrine glands
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Heat production is tied to the metabolic rate of what?
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kcal/hr or kcal/day
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Factors that determine heat production (5)
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1. BMR 2. Shivering and non-shivering thermogenisis 3. Stimulation of sympathetic nerves 4. Hormonal activity 5. Cellular chemical activity
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Rate of heat loss depends on what?
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The speed of heat transfer from the core of the body to the skin to the ambient environment
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What is the body's insulator and radiator?
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Skin and adipose tissue
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Skin as an insulator
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Hypodermis acts as an insulator. Fat is a bad conductor of heat. Adipose tissue allows the maintenance of normal internal core temp despite the fluctuations of skin temp due to ambient temp changes
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Skin as a radiator
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Arterivenous anastamosis... heat conduction of skin depends on degree of vasoconstriction, body core temp changes, ambient temp changes
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Heat loss from the skin to environment happens in four ways:
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1. Radiation (60%) 2. Conduction (18%) 3. Convection 4. Evaportation (22%)
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Heat loss due to radiation
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Body radiates heat in all directions. Body will radiate heat if ambient environment is colder that skin
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Heat loss due to Conduction
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Direct transfer of body heat through direct contact. 3% loss through conduction to other objects. 15% loss to conduction to air.
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Heat loss due to convection
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Transfer of heat from the body by currents (air or fluid) This is why it feels cooler under a ceiling fan.
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Heat loss due to Evaporation
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Sweat glands. Water evaporates from skin and lungs at a rate of 450-600ml a day. This is called insensible heat loss.
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Why are woman often colder than men?
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Lower BMR that men and men have a higher level of testosterone (constriction of blood vessels)
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Why are older people cold?
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Less body fat
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Hyperthyroid and temperature
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Hot (increases thyroxin)
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Hypothyroid and temperature
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Cold (decreases thyroxin)
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Heart disease and temperature
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Poor circulation, therefor colder
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Medication of temperature
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Antidepressants, diet pill, cold and sinus meds all make you feel hot. Betablockers and anithistamines make you feel cold
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What effect does alcohol, nicotine and caffeine have on your body's temperature?
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Insensitive to cold
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Autonomic control to sweating
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Anterior hypothalmic - peroptic area controls sweating.
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Autonomic pathway to sweating
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Nerve impulse from anterior hypothalamic preoptic area to spinal cord to sympathetic nerves to sweat glands in the skin
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What are the sweat gland innervated by?
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Cholinergic postgaglionic sympathetic nerve fibers
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What else effect sweat secretion?
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Epinephrine and norepinephrine
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The role of aldosterone in sweating
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When the salt concentration in your blood goes down because of sweating, this stimulates the production of aldosterone
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How many grams of salt per day is lost in an unacclimatized person for the first few days of being out in the hot sun?
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15-30 grams per day
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How many grams of salt per day is lost in an acclimatized person in 4-6 weeks of prolonged heat exposure?
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3-5 grams per day
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Structure of the sweat glands: 2 parts
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1. deep glandular portions 2. Coiled ducts
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Thermosregulation
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Preoptic area in hypothalamus has a cluster of neurons called hypothalamic thermostat.
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What is the normal temperature?
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98.6 to 99.7
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Hypothalamic thermostat control when it is too cold: 2 things
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1. Heat conservation 2. Heat production
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Heat conservation
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Dermal vasocontriction, stimulation of erector pilli muscle.
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Heat production
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Increased by thermogenesis
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Types of thermogenesis
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1. Shivering thermogenisis 2. Chemical thermogenesis (thyroxin)
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Long term effect in cold weather
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Increased metabolic rate; more nutrients utilized; we consume more calories to stoke the furnace
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To increase body temperature
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1. Skin vasoconstriction 2. pilli erection 3. Shivering 4. Chemical thermogenesis
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When temperature is to high:
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1. Vasodilation 2. Sweating 3. Heat production stopped
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Fever
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Temperature about 108 kicks off the positive feedback loop
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Chills
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Pyrogens increase hypothalamic thermostat setpoint suddenly
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Flush
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Dermal vasodilation
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Hyperthermia
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Increase in body temperature not caused by fever. The thermostat loses the ability to regulate body temperature.
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Heat Exhaustion
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Severe electrolyte loss, hypotension, dizziness, vomiting and fainting (105-108)
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Heat stroke
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Prolonged heat exposure with high humidity. Evaporative cooling is retarded.
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Hypothermia
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Decreased core temp of 91 degrees F or lower
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Frosbite
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Ice crystals form in tissues. Sudden vasocontriction of blood vessels.
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The cells membrane of excitable cells have 2 important functions
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1. Isolate cell-specific elements from the extracellular environment 2. Regulate the intracellular and extracellular ionic invironment
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Lipid Bylayer
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1. Phospholipids 2. Cholesterol 3. Gylcolipids
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The cell membrane is highly permeable to what?
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Lipid soluble substances
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The cell membrane has a low permeability to what?
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Ions, glucose, amino acids
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3 basic functions of the cell membrane in production nerve impulses
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1. hydrophobic tails provide a barrier to the movement of polar molecules between the ICF and ECF 2. Electrical capacitance 3. orientation of integral proteins
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2 types of proteins in cell membrane
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1. Integral or intrinsic 2. peripheral or extrinsic
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Integral proteins
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Have ion channels and act as receptors for neurotransmitters substances. They also make cells stick together.
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Peripheral proteins
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Are found absorbed or attached on the outside surfaces of the bilayer.
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Carbohydrates
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Are found only on the outer half of the lipid bilayer as a thin sugar coating called the glycocalyx
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Function of carbohydrates
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Cell to cell communication. Act as receptors, help in cell adhesion and enter into immune reaction
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Transport across the cell membrane (2)
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1. Simple diffusion (electrolyte and nonelectrolyte) 2. Carrier mediated diffusion
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Simple diffusion (non electrolyte)
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Does not require metabolic energy. Molecules just pass through.
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Net Diffusion
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From high concentration to low concentration
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Net diffusion also known as flux or flow is dependent on what?
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1. Concentration diffrences 2. Membrane thickness 3. Solubility in lipids of the membrane 4. molecular weight of the solute 5. Number of protein channels 6. Pressure diffrences across the membrane 7. Temperature 8. Diffusion coefficient
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Diffusion coefficient
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D = P x A
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Simple diffusion of electrolytes
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Occurs when the molecule is dissolved in the lipid matrix of the membrane or by going through membrane pores.
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Carrier-mediated or Facilitate diffusion
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Also occurs down the concentration gradient and does not require metabolic energy. They require a carrier protein to cross the membrane
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Factor affecting facilitated diffusion
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1. Sterospecity 2. Saturation 3. Competition
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Osmosis
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The net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high concentration to low concentration when a barrier restricts the movement of solutes.
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Osmolarity
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g = concentration of particle C = concentration of solutes
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Hyperosmotic
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Solution with the higher osmolarity
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Hypoosmotic
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Solution with the lower osmolarity
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Isotonic
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asdf
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Hypertonic
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