question

Combustion

answer

Alkane reacting with Oxygen

-results most of the time CO2 and H2O

question

Halogenation

answer

The replacement of an alkane hydrogen by a chlorine or bromine atom in a process initiated by heat or light
(mixture of products)

question

Cyclic alkanes [cycloalkanes]

answer

contain a ring of carbon atoms

question

Alkene

answer

A hydrocarbon that contains a carbon double bond

C=C

question

Alkyne

answer

a hydrocarbon that contains a carbon triple bond

-
C=C

question

Nonpolar

answer

Alkenes and alkynes
-insoluble in water, soluble in nonpolar organic solvents; less dense than water

question

Cis-trans isomerism

answer

each double-bond carbon atom has different
substituents

question

Reaction type 1: addition

answer

substance x-y adds to the multiple bond of an unsaturated reactant to yield a saturated product that has only single bonds.

[[slide 15 chpt 13 ]]

question

Reaction 2: Elimination

answer

a saturated reactant yields an unsaturated product by losing groups from two adjacent carbons.

[slide 16 chpt 13]]

question

Reaction 3: Substitution

answer

an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms
-switcheroooo!

[[slide 17 chpt 13]]

question

Reaction 4: rearrangement

answer

a molecule undergoes bond reorganization to yield an isomer.
-cis-trans

[[slide 18 chpt 13]]

question

Addition 1: Hydrogenation

answer

addition of H2 to a multiple bond to give a saturated product.

question

Addition 2: Halogenation

answer

addition of Cl2 or Br2 to a multiple bond to give a dihalide product.

question

Addition 3: Hydrohalogenation

answer

Alkenees react with hydrogen bromide (HBr) to yield alkyl bromides and with hydrogen chloride (HCl) to yield alkyl chlorides in what are called hydrohalogenation reactions.

question

Markovnikov's Rule;

answer

in the addition of HX to an alkene, the H attaches to the carbon that already has the most H's, and the X attaches to the carbon that has fewer H's.;

question

Addition 4: Hydration

answer

the addition of water in the presence of a strong acid catalyst, to a multiple bond to give an alcohol product. ;

question

Aromatic Substitution 1: Nitration

answer

the substitution of a nitro group for one of the ring hydrogens.;

question

Aromatic Substitution 2: Halogenation;

answer

the substation of a halogen atom, usually bromine or chlorine, for one of the ring hydrogens;

question

Aromatic substitution 3: sulfonation;

answer

the substitution of a sulfuric acid group for one of the ring hydrogens;

question

isomer

answer

the same formula and connections between atoms, but different structures.;

question

Carbohydrate

answer

a member of a large class of naturally occurring polyhydroxy ketones and aldehydes.;
ending in -ose

question

Monosaccharide;

answer

a carbohydrate with 3-7 carbon atoms

question

Disaccharide

answer

a carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides;

question

Polysaccharide

answer

a carbohydrate that is a polymer of monosaccharides.

question

Aldose

answer

a monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde carbonyl group.;

question

Ketose

answer

a monosaccharide that contains a ketone carbonyl group.

question

Chiral Carbons

answer

carbons that are bonded to four different groups;

question

enantiomer

answer

-lacking a plane of symmetry and exist as a pair of non-superimposable mirror image
-"right-handed" or "left-handed"

question

Diastereomers;

answer

stereoisomers, but not mirror images of each other.;

question

Fischer Projection;

answer

a way of drawing stereoisomers on a flat page so that we can tell one from another.;
-aldehyde or ketone is always located at the top.

question

D-sugar

answer

monosaccharide with the -OH group on the chiral carbon atom farthest from the carbonyl group pointing to the right in a Fischer projection. ;

question

L-Sugar

answer

Monosaccharide with the -OH group on the chiral carbon atom farthest from the carbonyl group pointing to the left in a Fischer projection.;

question

anomer

answer

cyclic sugars that differ only in positions of substituents at the hemiacetal carbon; the alpha form has the -OH on the opposite side from the -CH2OH;
the beta form has the -OH on the same side as the -CH2OH

question

Anomeric Carbon atom:

answer

the hemiacetal C atom in a cyclic sugar; the C atom bonded to an -OH group and an O in the ring. ;

question

Reducing Sugar

answer

a carbohydrate that reacts in basic solution with a mild oxidizing agent.

question

glycoside;

answer

a cyclic acetal formed by reaction of a monosaccharide with an alcohol, accompanied by loss of H2O

question

Glycosidic bond

answer

Bond between the anomeric carbon atom of a monosaccharide and an -OR group. ;

question

Disaccharide formation

answer

reaction of the anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide with an -OH group of a second monosaccharide

question

alpha 1,4 link

answer

when the O is in the middle and both sides are up

question

Beta 1,4 link

answer

when the O is in the middle and the first monosaccharide is down and the second monosaccharide is up

question

Glycoproteins

answer

proteins that contain short carbohydrate chains

question

Chitin

answer

a hard, structural polymer

question

enzyme

answer

a protein or other molecule that acts as a catalyst for a biological reaction.;

question

active site;

answer

a pocket in an enzyme with the specific shape and chemical makeup necessary;

question

Substrate

answer

a reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

question

Specificity

answer

the limitation of the activity of an enzyme to a specific substrate, specific reaction, or specific type of reaction

question

Cofactor

answer

a nonprotein part of an enzyme that is essential to the enzyme's catalytic activity; a metal ion or a coenzyme

question

Coenzyme

answer

an organic molecule that acts as an enzyme cofactor

question

Six main classes of enzymes

answer

1. oxidoreductase
2. Transferase
3. Hydrolase
4. Lyase
5. Isomerase
6. Ligase

question

Oxidoreductase

answer

catalyze redox reactions of substrates, most commonly addition or removal of oxygen or hydrogen
-require coenzymes that are reduced or oxidized as the substrate is oxidized or reduced.

question

Transferases

answer

-catalyze transfer of a group from one molecule to another. Kinases transfer a phosphate group from ATP to give ADP and phosphorylated product.

question

hydrolases

answer

catalyze the breaking of bonds with addition of water. The digestion of carbohydrates and proteins by hydrolysis requires these enzymes.

question

ligases

answer

catalyze the bonding together of two substrates. Such reactions are generally not favorable and require energy from ATP hydrolysis

question

Isomerases

answer

catalyze the isomerization (rearrangement of atoms) of a substrate in reactions that have but one substrate and one product.

question

lyases

answer

catalyze the addition of a molecules to a double bond or the reverse reaction in which a molecule is eliminated from a double bond.

question

induced-fit model

answer

has a flexible active site that changes shape to best fit the substrate and catalyze the reaction

question

Low substrate concentration

answer

the reaction rate is directly proportional to the substrate concentration.
-when the substrate concentration increases, the rate drops off as more of the active sites are occupied
-when all the active sites are occupied the rate reaches a maximum

question

presence of excess substrate

answer

-the concentration of an enzyme can vary according to our metabolic needs.
-if the substrate does not become a limitation, the reaction rate varies directly with the enzyme concentration

question

Enzyme catalytic activity dependencies

answer

-dependent on pH and temperature.

question

reaction rate dependencies

answer

-rate increases with increasing temperature until the protein begins to denature then the rate decreases rapidly
-the optimum activity for an enzyme occurs at pH where it acts.

question

activation

answer

any process that starts or increases the action of an enzyme

question

inhibition

answer

any process that slows or stops the action of an enzyme

question

Feedback control:

answer

the regulation of an enzyme's activity by the product of a reaction later in a pathway;

question

allosteric control:;

answer

an interaction in which the binding of a regulator at one site on a protein affects the proteins ability to bind to another molecule at a different site. ;

question

positive regulator;

answer

changes the active sites so that the enzyme becomes a better catalyst and the rate accelerates. ;

question

negative regulator;

answer

changes the active sites so that the enzyme is a less effective catalyst and the rate slows down;

question

reversible inhibition;

answer

the inhibitor can leave restoring the enzyme to its uninhibited level of activity;

question

irreversible inhibition;

answer

the inhibitor remains permanently bound and the enzyme is permanently inhibited;

question

competitive inhibition;

answer

makes it so the substrate cannot enter the active site;

question

noncompetitive inhibition;

answer

there is not an active site where the substrate can enter.;

question

Genetic control:

answer

regulation of enzyme activity by hormonal control of the synthesis of enzymes is especially useful for enzymes needed only at certain times. ;

question

vitamins;

answer

an organic molecule, essential in trace amounts that must be obtained in the diet because it is not synthesized in the body.;

question

antioxidant;

answer

a substance that prevents oxidation;

question

free radicals;

answer

highly reactive molecular fragments with unpaired electrons;

question

esters;

answer

have an -OR group bonded to the carbonyl C atom. ;-boil at much lower temps than carboxylic groups because there is no hydrogen bonding. ;
-easier to break;

question

esterification;

answer

-warming a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a strong-acid catalyst.;

question

amide formation;

answer

- carboxylic acid + amine yields an amide;

question

acid-catalyzed hydrolysis
;

answer

-the reverse of esterification;
-ester is treated with water in the presence of a strong acid and hydrolysis (add water) takes place. ;

question

saponification;

answer

-the product of saponification is a carboxylate anion rather than a free carboxylic acid. ;
-ester hydrolysis by reaction with a base [[NaOH or KOH]]

question

amide hydrolysis;

answer

-acidic conditions - adds H30 but under basic conditions adds OH-

question

Phosphate ester;

answer

compound formed by reaction of an alcohol with phosphoric acid

question

phosphorylation;

answer

the transferring of a phosphoric group from one molecule to another;

question

amine

answer

a compound that has one or more organic groups bonded to nitrogen;

question

heterocycle;

answer

a ring that contains nitrogen or some other atom in addition to carbon. ;

question

Protein

answer

a large biological molecule made of many amino acids linked together through peptide bonds;

question

Alpha-amino acid

answer

compound with an amino group bonded to the C atom next to the -COOH group;

question

peptide bond

answer

an amide bond linking 2 amino acids;

question

zwitterions;

answer

neutral dipolar ions;

question

Acidic conditions for zwitterions;

answer

accept protons on their basic -COO- groups to leave only the positively charged NH3+ groups

question

basic conditions for zwitterions;

answer

lose protons from their acidic NH3+ groups to leave only the negatively charged COO- groups;

question

achiral

answer

opposite of chiral, having superimposable mirror images and thus no right- or left handedness.;

question

enantiomers or optical isomers

answer

the mirror-image forms of a chiral molecule like alanine
-enantiomers are one kind of stereoisomer compounds that have the same formula and atomic connections but different spatial arrangements;

question

primary protein structure

answer

the sequence in which amino acids are linked by peptide bonds in a protein

question

salt bridge;

answer

the attraction between the positive and negative charges in ionized acidic and basic side chains.;

question

disulfide bonds;

answer

side chains of thiol functional groups that react

question

secondary protein structure

answer

the spatial arrangement of the polypeptide backbones of proteins;

question

fibrous proteins

answer

-tough insoluble proteins in which the chains form long fibers or sheets. ;

question

globular proteins;

answer

water-soluble proteins whose chains are folded into compact, globe-like shapes.;

question

tertiary protein structure;

answer

the overall three-dimensional shape that results from the folding of a protein chain
-depends mainly on interactions of amino acid side chains that are far apart along the same backbone;

question

quaternary protein structure;

answer

the way in which two or more polypeptide subunits associate to foam a single three-dimensional protein unit;

question

protein hydrolysis;

answer

the reverse of protein formation, peptide bonds are hydrolyzed to yield amino acids;

question

denaturation;

answer

the loss of secondary, tertiary, or quaternary protein structure due to disruption of noncovalent interactions and/or disulfide bonds that leaves peptide bonds and primary structure intact.;

question

mechanical agitation;

answer

-denaturation
-denaturation of proteins at the surface of the air bubbles stiffens the protein and causes the bubbles to be held in place. ;

question

Detergents

answer

very low concentrations of detergents can cause denaturation by disrupting the association of hydrophobic side chains. ;

question

Chromosomes;

answer

chromatin organizes itself here;
-contains a different DNA molecule, and the DNA is duplicated so that each new cell receives a complete copy;

question

genes
;

answer

individual segments of DNA that contain the instructions that direct the syntheses of a single polypeptide;

question

Nucleic acid;

answer

a polymer of nucleotides;

question

nucleotide;

answer

5-carbon sugar bonded to a cyclic amine base and a phosphate group;

question

nucleoside;

answer

a 5-carbon sugar bonded to a cyclic amine base, a nucleotide with no phosphate group;

question

ribonucleotides;

answer

nucleotides that contain ribose;

question

deoxyribonucleotides;

answer

contain 2-deoxy-D-ribose, designated by leading their abbreviations with a lower case;
"d"

question

double helix

answer

heterocyclic bases are on the inside, so that a base on one strand points directly toward a base on the second strand. ;
-sugar-phosphate backbone making up the sides and the hydrogen-bonded base paris (the ladder part)

question

replication;

answer

process by which copies of DNA are made when cell divides;

question

transcription;

answer

process by which the information in DNA is read and used to synthesize RNA;

question

translation;

answer

the process by which RNA directs protein synthesis.;

question

helicases;

answer

enzymes that begins unwinding of the double helix;

question

Okazaki Fragments;

answer

the short segments replicate from 5' to 3'

question

semiconservative replication;

answer

the newly synthesized strand in the new double helix during replication;

question

ribosomal RNA;

answer

outside the nucleus but within the cytoplasm of a cell[ribosomes], small granular organelles where protein synthesis takes place;

question

transfer RNA;

answer

smaller RNA's that deliver amino acids one by one to protein chains growing at ribosomes
-each one carries only one amino acid

question

messenger RNA

answer

carry information transcribed from DNA
-formed in the cell nucleus and transported out to the ribosomes, where proteins will be synthesized

question

exon

answer

the code for a gene is contained in one or more small sections of DNA

question

intron

answer

the code for a gene may be interrupted by a sequence of bases

question

heterogeneous nuclear RNA

answer

the initial mRNA strand contains both exons and introns

question

Codon

answer

a sequence of three ribonucleotides in the messenger RNA chain that codes for a specific amino acid
-also a three-nucleotide sequence that is a stop codon and stops translation

question

genetic code

answer

the sequence of nucleotides, coded in triplets (codons) in mRNA, that determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis

question

initiation

answer

-protein synthesis begins when an mRNA, the first tRNA, and the small subunit of a ribosome come together.

question

termination

answer

a "stop" codon signals the end of translation.

question

lipid

answer

a naturally occurring molecule from a plant or animal soluble in nonpolar organic solvents

question

Waxes

answer

carboxylic acid esters, with long, straight hydrocarbon chains in both R groups
-they are secreted by sebaceous glands in the skin of animals and perform mostly external protective functions.
-carboxylic acid and alcohol combine to form an ester

question

fatty acid

answer

a long-chain carboxylic acid; those in animal fats and vegetable oils often have 12-22 carbon atoms

question

tryacylglycerols

answer

carboxylic acid trimesters of glycerol, a three-carbon trialcohol. they make up the fats stored in our bodies and most dietary fats and oils.
-triester

question

glycerophospholipids

answer

trimesters of glycerols that contain charged phosphate dieter groups and are abundant in cell membranes
-polar head and non-polar tail

question

sphingomyelins

answer

amides derived from an amino alcohol, also contain charged phosphate dieter groups
-amide, phosphate diester

question

glycolipids

answer

different amides derived from sphingosine, contain polar carbohydrate groups
-carbohydrate and lipid

question

steriods

answer

are tetracyclic molecules that act as hormones and contribute to the structure of cell membranes
-all ring molecules

question

Eicosanoids

answer

carboxylic acids that are a special type of intracellular chemical messenger
-ring with 2 side chains (bobby pin)

question

saturated fatty acid

answer

a long-chain carboxylic acid containing one or more carbon-carbon single bonds

question

unsaturated fatty acids

answer

a long-chain carboxylic acid containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds

question

polyunsaturated fatty acids

answer

have more than one carbon-carbon double bond.

question

oil

answer

a mixture of triacylglycerols that is liquid because it contains a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids

question

fat

answer

a mixture of triacylglycerols that is sold because it contains a high proportion of saturated fatty acids

question

phospholipid

answer

a lipid that has an ester link between phosphoric acid and an alcohol

question

lipid bilayer

answer

formed by 2 parallel layers of lipids oriented so that their ionic head groups protrude into the aqueous environments on either side of the bilayer their nonpolar tails cluster together in the middle of the bilayer where they can interact and avoid water.

question

liposomes

answer

small spherical vesicles with a lipid bilayer surrounding an aqueous center.

question

fluid-mosaic model

answer

the membrane is described as fluid because it is not rigid and molecules can move around within it, and as a mosaic because it contains many kinds of molecules

question

active transport

answer

movement of substances across a cell membrane using energy

question

passive transport

answer

movement of a substance across a cell membrane without the use of energy, from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

question

simple diffusion

answer

passive transport by the random motion of diffusion through the cell membrane or through channel proteins.

question

Facilitated diffusion

answer

passive transport across a cell membrane with the assistance of a protein that changes shape

question

hemiketal

answer

ketone + alcohol

question

Ketal

answer

ketone + 2 alcohol

question

Acetal

answer

aldehyde + 2 Alcohol

question

Alanine

answer

Ala

A

question

Arginine

answer

Arg

R

question

Asparagine

answer

Asn

N

question

Aspartate

answer

Asp

D

question

Cysteine

answer

Cys

C

question

Glutamate

answer

Glu

E

question

Glutamine

answer

Gln

Q

question

Glycine

answer

Gly

G

question

Histidine

answer

His

H

question

Isoleucine

answer

ile

I

question

Leucine

answer

Leu

L

question

Lysine

answer

Lys

K

question

Methionine

answer

Met

M

question

Phenylalanine

answer

Phe

F

question

Proline

answer

Pro

P

question

Serine

answer

Ser

S

question

Threonine

answer

Thr

T

question

Tryptophan

answer

Trp

W

question

Tyrosine

answer

Tyr

Y

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