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The interval between two sound frequencies having a ratio of 2:1

answer

Octave

question

Psychological Aspect of sounds related to fundamental frequency

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Pitch

question

A sound quality corresponding to the level of pitch. Tone height is monotonically related to frequency

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Tone Height

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A sound quality shared by tones that have the same octave interval Each note on the musical scale (A-G) has a different chroma

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Tone Chroma

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Have simple ratios of note frequencies

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Consonant Chords

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Less elegent ratios of note frequencies

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Dissonant Chords

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Not a sequence of specific sounds but a relationship between successive notes. Melodies can be in a different key and still be the same melody

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Melody

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The perceived speed of the presentation of sounds

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Tempo

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Any deviation from a regular rhythm

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Synchopation

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When two rhythms are played together but slightly out of sync, one dominates

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Synchopated Auditory Polyrhythms

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Exhaled air rushes by these, located in the larynx. These produce sounds when muscles in the voice box are tensed.

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Vocal chords

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The airway above the Larynx used for the production of speech. Includes the Oral Tract and Nasal Tract

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Vocal tract

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Respiration (lungs) Phonation (vocal cords) Articulation (vocal tract)

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3 Parts of Speech Production

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Peaks in speech (power) spectrum: Formants Labeled by number, from lowest to highest (F1, F2, F3)—concentrations in energy occur at different frequencies, depending on length (and dynamic shape) of vocal tract Whereby, the power spectra are enhanced and attenuated

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Formants

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A pattern for sound analysis that provides a three-dimensional display plotting time on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis, and intensity in color or gray scale

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Spectrograms

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Most often described in terms of articulation Place of Articulation (e.g., at lips, at alveolar ridge, etc.) Manner (e.g., obstruction) Voicing: Whether the vocal cords are vibrating or not

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Classifying speech sounds

question

At lips or alveolar ridge

answer

Place

question

Obstruction

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Manner

question

Whether or not vocal cords are vibrating

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Voicing

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Airflow can be obstructed At the lips ('b,' 'p,' 'm') At the alveolar ridge ('d,' 't,' 'n') At the soft palate ('g,' 'k,' 'ng')

answer

Place of Articulation

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Airflow can be Totally obstructed ('b,' 'd,' 'g,' 'p,' 't,' 'k') Partially obstructed ('s,' 'z,' 'f,' 'v,' 'th,' 'sh') Only slightly obstructed ('l,' 'r,' 'w,' 'y') First blocked, then open ('ch,' 'j') Blocked at mouth but allowed to go through nasal passage ('n,' 'm,' 'ng')

answer

Manner of articulation

question

The vocal cords may be Vibrating ('b,' 'm,' 'z,' 'l,' 'r') Not vibrating ('p,' 's,' 'ch')

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Voicing

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The phenomenon in speech whereby attributes of successive speech units overlap in articulatory or acoustic patterns Inertia prevents tongue, lips, jaw, etc. from moving too fast Experienced talkers position tongue, etc. in anticipation of next consonant or vowel, causing coarticulation

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Coarticulation

question

Researchers can manipulate sound stimuli to vary continuously from "bah" to "dah" to "gah" However, people do not perceive the sounds as continuously varying Instead, people perceive sharp categorical boundaries between the stimuli: Categorical Perception

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Categorical Perception

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Motor processes used to produce speech sounds are used in reverse to understand the acoustic speech signal

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Motor Theory

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McGurk and MacDonald (1976) showed that what someone sees can affect what they hear

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McGurk Effect

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Certain sounds (making words) are more likely to occur together and babies are sensitive to those probabilities

answer

Statistical Learning

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Brain damage follows patterns of blood vessels, not brain function, so is difficult to study PET and fMRI studies: Help to learn about speech processing in the brain Listening to Speech: Left and right superior temporal lobes are activated more strongly in response to speech than to nonspeech sounds Hard to create well-controlled nonspeech stimuli because humans are so good at understanding even severely distorted speech

answer

Location of Speech processing in the brain

question

A sense comprised of three interacting sensory modalities: Our senses of linear motion, angular motion, and tilt

answer

3 Modalities of Spatial Orientation

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points forward+ and backwards-

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x axis

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points laterally+ is out of left ear

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y axis

question

points vertically + is out of top of head

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z axis

question

relative to person not gravity

answer

Axes are defined

question

x axis

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roll

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y axis

answer

pitch

question

around z axis

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yaw

question

Can be sensed when rotating head rotates in place

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Angular Motion

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Sensed when the head accelerates or decelerates in a line

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Linear Motion

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Head orientation with respect to gravity

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Tilt

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Amplitude and Direction, roll, pitch, and yaw

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2 Qualities of Spatial Orientation (& 3 associated movements)

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The three toroidal tubes in the vestibular system that sense angular acceleration, and change in angular velocity Source of our sense of angular motion

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Semicircular canals (Major parts and functions, Ampullae)

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The mechanical structures in the vestibular system that sense both linear acceleration and gravity Source of our sense of linear velocity and gravity.Two otolith organs in each ear: Utricle: Contains about 30,000 hair cells Saccule: Contains about 16,000 hair cells Each organ contains a Macula: A specialized detector of linear acceleration and gravity Each macula is roughly planar and sensitive primarily to shear forces

answer

Otolith organs (Major parts and functions)

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horizontal plane Sensitive to horizontal linear acceleration and gravity

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Utricle

question

vertical plane Sensitive to vertical linear acceleration and gravity

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Saccule

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out nose x - roll, out right ear positive y -pitch, out top of head positive z - yaw

answer

Coordinate system for translation direction and rotations

question

The size (increase or decrease) of a head movement (e.g., angular velocity, linear acceleration, tilt)

answer

Amplitude for Motion

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The line along which one faces or moves, with reference to the point or region toward which one is facing or moving

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Direction for Motion

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The brain remembers and replicates the velocity trajectory The otolith organs register acceleration, and our brains mathematically integrate the acceleration and turn it into the perception of linear velocity

answer

How vestibular systems respond to velocity

question

In absence of any rotation, many afferent neurons from semicircular canals have RESTING firing rate about 100 spikes.sec -it's high relative to nerve fibers in other sensory systems -allows neurons to code amplitude by decreasing their firing rate as well as increasing it

answer

Coding of amplitude in semicircular canals

question

We are very accurate when perceiving tilt for angles between 0 degrees (upright) and 90 degrees (lying down) Illusion: If you roll tilt your head to the left or right while looking at a vertical streak of light, the light appears to tilt in the opposite direction

answer

How vestibular systems respond to gravity

question

Sensory receptors that are responsive to mechanical stimulation (pressure, vibration, movement)

answer

Mechanoreceptors

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Mechanoreceptors that support the stereocilia that transduce mechanical movement in the vestibular labyrinth into neural activity sent to the brain stem Like the hair cells involved in hearing, vestibular hair cells act as the mechanoreceptors in each of the five vestibular organs

answer

Hair cells

question

Head motion causes hair cell stereocilia to deflect, causing a change in hair cell voltage and altering neurotransmitter release

answer

Stereocilia

question

the hair cells in semicircular canals, they are all oriented in the same direction

answer

Kinocilia

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In the absence of stimulation, hair cells release neurotransmitter at a constant (base) rate When hair cell bundles bend, change in hair cell voltage is proportional to the amount of deflection Bending toward tallest stereocilium (kinocilium): Depolarization (higher firing -; excitation) Bending away from the kinocilium: Hyperpolarization (lower firing -; inhibition) Hair cells increase firing to rotation in one direction and decrease firing to rotation in the opposite direction

answer

Receptor potential: Resting rate, depolarization, and hyperpolarization (Fig. 12.7)

question

Larger accelerations (or larger gravitational shear forces) move the otolith organ's otoconia more This leads to greater deflection of the hair cell bundles Change in receptor potential is proportional to magnitude of linear acceleration or gravitational shear

answer

How semicircular canals and otolith organs code amplitude (Fig. 12.11 and 12.14)

question

What is the minimum motion needed to correctly perceive motion direction?

answer

Threshold Estimation

question

Participants report how much (e.g., how many degrees) they think they tilted, rotated, or translated

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Magnitude Estimation

question

Participants are tilted and then orient a line with the direction of gravity. This is done in a dark room with only the line visible to avoid any visual cues to orientation

answer

Matching

question

The process of combining different sensory signals Typically leads to more accurate information than can be obtained from individual senses alone

answer

Sensory Integration

question

Vection: An illusory sense of self motion produced when you are not, in fact, moving Example: The feeling of flying while watching an IMAX movie

answer

Visual Vestibular Integration

question

Observers looking at a rotating display report rotational vection Subjects have the illusion of tilt but do not feel as if they turn upside-down Why don't people feel as if they are turning upside down? The vestibular system's sense of gravity stops the illusion Astronauts without gravity feel as if they are tumbling under these circumstances Thus, vestibular information is combined with visual information to yield a "consensus" about our sense of spatial orientation

answer

Visual Vestibular Vection

question

Counter-rotating the eyes to counteract head movements and maintain fixation on a target

answer

Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes

question

Motion sickness: Results when there is a disagreement between the motion and orientation signals provided by the semicircular canals, otolith organs, and vision Could be an evolutionary response to being poisoned Blood pressure is regulated by vestibulo-autonomic responses

answer

Vestibulo-Autonomic Responses (Motion sickness and blood pressure)

question

A whole family of reflexes that work together to keep us from falling over Without vestibulo-spinal responses, we would be unable to stand up in the dark Patients with vestibular loss actually over-compensate for body sway

answer

Vestibulo-Spinal Responses

question

Swaying, rocking, or tilting perceptions felt after spending time on a boat or in the ocean Aftereffect of adapting to the rocking motion of the ocean "Getting your sea legs" Usually goes away after a few hours, but some people experience it continuously, causing problems

answer

Mal de Debarquement Syndrome

question

Sudden experience of dizziness, imbalance, and spatial disorientation Can cause sudden falling down Can cause repeated vomiting from severe motion sickness The unpredictability of the attacks can be terrifying for those who suffer from it Possible treatments: medications, implanted devices, or sometimes removal of the vestibular apparatus itself

answer

Meniere's Syndrome

question

The perception of the position and movement of our limbs in space

answer

Kinesthesis

question

Perception mediated by kinesthetic and vestibular receptors

answer

Proprioception

question

A collective term for sensory signals from the body

answer

Somatosensation

question

they respond to mechanical stimulation: Pressure, vibration, or movement

answer

Tactile Mechanoreceptors

question

Fast adaptation, small receptive field (FA1) - Low frequency vibration detection

answer

Meissner's Corpuscles

question

Slow adaptation, small receptive field (SA1) - Texture perception, pattern/form detection

answer

Merkel Cell Neurite Complexes

question

Fast adaptation, large receptive field, low frequency vibrations (FA II)

answer

Pacinian Copuscles

question

Slow adaptation, large receptive field (SA II) - Finger position, stable grasp

answer

Ruffini Endings

question

Mechanoreceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints Play an important role in sense of where limbs are, what kinds of movements are made

answer

Kinesthetic Receptors

question

A sensory receptor located in a muscle that senses its tension Receptors in tendons signal tension in muscles attached to tendons Receptors in joints react when joint is bent to an extreme angle Convey the rate at which muscle fibers are changing in length

answer

Muscle Spindles

question

Sensory receptors that signal information about changes in skin temperature Two distinct populations of thermoreceptors: Warmth Fibers, Cold Fibers Body is constantly regulating internal temperature Thermoreceptors respond when you make contact with an object warmer or colder than your skin

answer

Thermoreceptors

question

Sensory receptors that transmit information about noxious (i.e., painful) stimulation that could damage skin Two groups of nociceptors: A-Delta Fibers, C Fibers Painful events have two stages—quick sharp pain (A-delta fibers) followed by throbbing sensation (C fibers). Difference in speeds is due to myelination

answer

Nociceptors

question

Intermediate-sized, myelinated sensory nerve fibers; transmit pain and temperature signals

answer

A-Delta Fibers

question

Narrow-diameter, unmyelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit pain and temperature signals

answer

C Fibers

question

Touch sensations are represented Somatotopically in the brain: Primary Somatosensory Cortex called S1; Secondary Somatosensory Cortex called S2 Analogous to retinotopic mapping found in vision Adjacent areas on skin connect to adjacent areas in brain

answer

Somatotopic Organization

question

Maplike representation of regions of the body in the brain

answer

Homonculus

question

Sensation perceived from a physically amputated limb of the body Parts of brain listening to missing limbs not fully aware of altered connections, so they attribute activity in these areas to stimulation from missing limb

answer

Phantom Limb

question

Decreasing pain sensation during conscious experience Soldier in above example: Experienced effect because of endogenous opiates—chemicals released in body to block release or uptake of neurotransmitters transmitting pain sensation to brain

answer

Analgesia

question

Endogenous opiates may be responsible for certain placebo effects Externally produced substances have similar effect: Morphine, heroin, codeine

answer

Endogenous Opiates

question

Once damage has occurred, site can become more sensitive

answer

Hyperalgesia

question

A description of the system that transmits pain that incorporates modulating signals from the brain (Melzack and Wall, 1988) Feedback circuit located in Substantia Gelatinosa (SG) of dorsal horn of spinal cord Gate neurons that block pain transmission can be activated by extreme pressure, cold, or other noxious stimulation applied to another site distant from the source of pain

answer

Gate Control Theory (Fig. 13.9)

question

The minimum distance at which two stimuli are just perceptible as separate Like sensitivity to pressure, spatial acuity varies across the body Extremities (fingertips, face, and toes) show the highest acuity

answer

Two-point Thresholds (Fig. 13.13)

question

A stereotypical hand movement pattern used to contact objects in order to perceive their properties each exploratory procedure is optimal for determining one or more object properties Example: To determine roughness of an object, use lateral motion

answer

Exploratory Procedures (Fig. 13.9)

question

Task: Recognize presence of material properties that are presented haptically to the fingers with a special device Do some material properties "pop out"? Yes: Rough among smooth, hard among soft, cool among warm, edged surfaces among smooth surfaces No: Horizontal lines among vertical lines "Pop out" stimuli for vision and touch are different

answer

Haptic Search (Fig. 13.18)

question

Braille alphabet consists of raised dots Loomis: Touch acts like blurred vision when the fingertips explore a raised pattern Visual stimuli blurred to match the acuity of fingertip skin Visual stimuli and haptic stimuli showed same confusion errors

answer

Braille

question

The inability to identify objects by touch Caused by lesions to the parietal lobe Patient documented by Reed and Caselli (1994): Tactile agnosia with right hand but not left hand Could not recognize objects such as a key chain in right hand, but could with left hand or visually Other sensory abilities were normal in both hands

answer

Tactile Agnosia

question

The center of a reference frame used to represent locations relative to the body. egocenter for right hand and egocenter for left hand - difficult to touch same area in center, elbows tend to be offset

answer

Haptic Egocenter

question

The impression of our body in space Our body image is highly changeable It is possible to induce an out-of-body experience: Subject wears stereo goggles that receive input from camera behind subject Experimenter strokes subject's chest with a plastic rod while simultaneously moving a rod in the same manner to stroke the subject's "phantom chest" Subject reports viewing their own body from behind

answer

Body Image 13.22

question

Primary Somatosensory cortex

answer

Area S1

question

Secondary Somatosenroy Cortex

answer

Area S2

question

NEGATIVE

answer

during hyperpolarization, there is an increase in membrane potential and the inner membrane surface becomes more_____ than the outer membrane surface

question

true

answer

TF? People are able to perceive words more quickly than individual letters

question

reflexive

answer

The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) are both examples of ______ eye movements.

question

bigger

answer

During response enhancement, a neuron responding to an attended stimulus might give a _______ response. a. bigger b. smaller c. slower d. surprising e. delayed

question

neglect occurs, especially on the left of the visual field

answer

Which of the following is not a symptom of Balint syndrome? a. The spatial localization abilities are greatly reduced. b. Neglect occurs, especially on the left side of the visual field. c. There is an inability to perceive more than one object at a time. d. A tendency to gaze fixedly ahead develops. e. All of the above are symptoms of Balint syndrome.

question

one rhythm tends to dominate and the non-dominant rhythm is perceptually adjusted to correspond to the dominant rhythm.

answer

According to the figure below, when two rhythms are played together

question

resonation of sound

answer

Each consonant we produce can be classified according to all but which of the following articulatory dimensions? A) Place of articulation B) Manner of articulation C) Resonation of sound D) Voicing E) All of the above are used in classifying consonants

question

irrelevant acoustic information

answer

Native listeners learn to A) pronounce all possible sounds in all languages. B) pronounce vowels first. C) listen attentively to foreign languages. D) filter out irrelevant acoustic information E)pronounce consonants first

question

learned taste aversion

answer

A ____is often responsible for our disliking of a particular food after gastric illness:

question

specific hungers

answer

______theory is the deficiency of a given nutrient procedures craving for that nutrient:

question

tastant

answer

a ______ is any stimulus that can be tasted

question

microvilli (yes)

answer

___ are slender projections on the tips of some taste bud cells that extend into the taste pore:

question

filiform papillae (yes)

answer

which of the following are the small structures on the tongue causing its bumpy appearance and that have no taste function?

question

dermis (yes)

answer

touch receptors can be found in the epidermis and

question

meissener corpuscles

answer

mechanoreceptors that have a fast adaptation rate and small receptive field size are called

question

stapes

answer

vibrations transmitted through the tympanic membrane and middle-ear bones cause the ___ to push and pull the flexible window in and out of the vestibular canal at the base of the cochlea.

question

compression

answer

When air molecules become momentarily crowded, this is called _______________. A. refraction B. compression C. density D. rarefaction

question

inner ear

answer

The _______ is the location where fine changes in sound pressure in the environment are translated into neural signals. A. outer ear B. middle ear C. inner ear D. tympanic canal E. oval window

question

stapes

answer

Vibrations transmitted through the tympanic membrane and middle-ear bones cause the _______ to push and pull the flexible window in and out of the vestibular canal at the base of the cochlea. a. helicotrema b. basilar membrane c. round window d. stapes e. pinna

question

e. cross-modality matching.

answer

If I ask you to taste a lemon and then adjust a light until it is as bright as the lemon is sour, then I have asked you to engage in a. magnitude estimation. b. the method of constant stimuli. c. the method of limits. d. signal detection. e. cross-modality matching.

question

observer

answer

Magnitude estimation, demonstrated by this figure, is a psychophysical method in which the _______ assigns values according to perceived magnitudes of stimuli. a. observer b. experimenter c. apparatus d. computer e. All of the above

question

pattern analyzers

answer

Spatial frequency channels are often referred to as a. a set of simple cells. b. a set of complex cells. c. orientation tuned cells. d. filters. e. pattern analyzers.

question

3 semicircular canals 2 otolith organs

answer

which five organs make up the vestibular system?

question

otolith organs, semicircular canals

answer

__ are the mechanical structures in the vestibular system that sense both linear acceleration and gravity. __ are the toroidal tubes in the vestibular system that sense angular motion.

question

linear acceleration

answer

which motion stimulus would yield the largest response from vestibular system?

question

angular motion

answer

the sense of __ registers motion resulting from rotation

question

otoconia

answer

the __ are tiny calcium carbonate stones in the ear that provide inertial mass for the otolith organs enabling them to sense gravity and linear acceleration

question

vestibulo ocular

answer

the __ reflex helps us see visual stimuli clearly even when the head is moving

question

motion sickness

answer

__ typically results from a disagreement between the motion and orientation signals provided by the semicircular canals, otolith organs and vision

question

vection

answer

__ is an illusory sense of self motion produced when you are not in fact moving

question

acceleration deceleration constant velocity

answer

semicircular canal neurons respond to __ and __ but not __

question

tone height

answer

_____ is the property of increasing pitch that accompanies increases in the tone's frequency.

question

the perceptual illusion of tilt, produced by adaptation to a pattern of a given orientation.

answer

tilt aftereffect

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