Exam 2 – Flashcards

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8 July 2022

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question

Members of the Heaven's Gate cult, who "knew" there was a spaceship following the Hale-Bopp comet, returned a perfectly good telescope they had purchased because they failed to see the spaceship they "knew" was there. Such behaviors demonstrate that

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people will often go to extreme lengths to justify their actions or beliefs.

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According to the authors of your text, one of the most powerful determinants of human behavior stems from our need to

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preserve and maintain a relatively favorable view of ourselves.

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When people act contrary to their self-perceptions as reasonable and sensible people, they experience a feeling known as ________.

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cognitive dissonance

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Hai has been taking expensive beta-carotene supplements for years because he believes they will reduce his risk of cancer. Hai has just learned that a well-controlled study published in the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine showed that beta-carotene supplements do not reduce cancer risk. Hai is probably experiencing

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cognitive dissonance

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5. George thinks of himself as an honest person until his brother reminds him that he's been known to keep extra change given to him by a cashier and to stock his home office for a sideline business with supplies taken from his job. George is now probably feeling a sense of discomfort known as

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cognitive dissonance

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Cognitive dissonance always

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produces discomfort

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Susan carefully rinses her mouth with an unpleasant-tasting mouthwash every day. One day, Susan reads an article reporting credible dental research that suggests that mouthwash is completely ineffective and that mouthwash may even be related to tooth decay. The discomfort that Susan experiences in response to this article is called

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cognitive dissonance

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Of the following, how are individuals most likely to reduce cognitive dissonance?

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By adding new cognitions that are consistent with their behavior.

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"Live fast and die young, that's what I always say," Rosie pronounces, as she stuffs down three more Ding-Dong snack cakes and opens another pint of high-fat ice cream. Rosie knows that her diet is unhealthy and harmful, of course. To reduce her dissonance, Rosie is

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adding a cognition that is consonant with her problem behavior.

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The most typical ways of reducing dissonance include all of the following EXCEPT

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forgetting about our past statements that contradict our behavior.

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You've recently learned that eating avocados, which you love, is bad for your health. To reduce the dissonance you experience after reading this news, you would most likely

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question the validity of the research and the integrity of the scientists.

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A tobacco grower says, "I'm not the only one growing it. If I stop, someone else will be there." Assuming that the man was experiencing dissonance from the fact that he was making his living from a crop that is bad for people's health, he appears to be reducing this dissonance by

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adding new cognitions

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"There's no way I'd give up drinking! I'd just be stressed out all the time," says Lilly, as she sips her third martini of the evening. Lilly's comments about her drinking habit are an example of using ________ to reduce cognitive dissonance.

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justification

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When people receive bad news—perhaps that they did not get a dream job they applied and interviewed for—what tends to happen?

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People usually put a spin on the news that makes them feel better.

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The authors of your text explain that people tend to overestimate how bad they will feel if a negative event were to happen to them. This tendency is called

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Impact bias

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Rudy thinks that if he ever got kicked off the football team he would be depressed for months, and that his life would lose all meaning. In actuality, his response would probably not be this severe or prolonged. What is Rudy demonstrating?

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impact bias

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People tend to fall subject to the impact bias (and not understand that they will usually successfully reduce cognitive dissonance) because reducing cognitive dissonance is

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largely unconscious.

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Because dissonance reduction processes are mostly unconscious, people

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often will overestimate how badly negative feedback may affect them.

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Jay just found out that he was not accepted into his dream college. Based on information from the authors of your text about impact bias, which of the following best reflects how Jay will react?

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He will get over it rather quickly.

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Imagine you really enjoy lying out in the sun to get a deep, dark tan. If you heard arguments both for and against tanning, you would probably remember ________ arguments for tanning, and ________ arguments against tanning.

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plausible; implausible

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Who would be LEAST likely to remember sound and well-founded arguments against smoking?

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a person who has no desire to quit smoking

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According to the authors of your text, people experience dissonance

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everytime they make a decision

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According to the authors of your text, after carefully making a decision, what is likely to happen?

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You will start to think more and more about the good qualities of your decision.

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According to the authors, every time we make a decision, we experience some amount of dissonance. Why?

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The chosen alternative is seldom completely positive.

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________ refers to the dissonance aroused after we have chosen between two or more alternatives.

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Postdecision dissonance

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Ying just purchased a rather expensive wristwatch. She had debated for weeks about the merits of two different styles before making her final decision. It's now likely that Ying will

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emphasize all of the positive aspects of the chosen watch.

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Someone reminds you to be appropriately grateful for the gifts you receive. Were a dissonance theorist to remind you to be thankful, he or she would be giving you advice on how to

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avoid cognitive dissonance.

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Recall that Brehm (1956) asked women to rate the desirability of a number of appliances and then allowed them to choose one of those appliances as a gift. Twenty minutes later, all women re-rated the same appliances, including the one they chose. Women tended to rate the alternatives they rejected lower than they had originally, and to rate their chosen appliance more positively. These results suggest that people

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reduce dissonance by overestimating differences between chosen and unchosen alternatives.

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Recall that Brehm (1956) asked women to rate the desirability of a number of appliances, and then allowed them to choose one of those appliances as a gift. Twenty minutes later, all women re-rated the same appliances, including the one they chose. According to his findings, which of the following (fictitious) participants would rate the toaster lower than she had originally?

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June, who chose the waffle iron instead

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Maria is on a limited budget, and can only afford one album. She really likes two in particular: Frank Sinatra's Greatest Hits and the soundtrack from the musical Wicked. When she gets to listen to the Frank Sinatra album, she cannot imagine why she ever considered the Wicked album. This is because

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Maria was motivated to reduce her postdecision dissonance.

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Why do people often experience postdecision dissonance?

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Almost every alternative has both an upside and a downside, and people feel uncomfortable.

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Anita spent two months trying to decide whether to buy a PC or a Mac. She finally decided on a Mac. Now, Anita most likely

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is certain she made the right decision.

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After reducing postdecision dissonance, people are more likely to rate the chosen and unchosen alternatives as

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being more dissimilar, such that the chosen alternative is much more desirable than the unchosen one.

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In general, the more ________ a decision between alternatives, the ________ the postdecision dissonance.

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permanent; greater

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All things being equal, it would generate the most dissonance to decide which of two

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people to marry

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Researchers (Knox & Inkster, 1968) visited a race track and interviewed people betting on the horses, both before and after they had placed their bets. They found that people who ________ were more confident in their betting decisions because ________.

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had already placed their bets; they couldn't change their minds

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Mariah has had a hard semester, and her grades have suffered. She really needs a good grade in psychology to get off academic probation and stay in school. On the next psychology exam, Mariah is sorely tempted to cheat, but she decides not to. Which of the following pairs of cognitions best reflects the source of any dissonance Mariah might experience while deciding not to cheat?

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"My school life could be over"; "I just gave up a chance to help myself."

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Your text describes several situations in which a person may decide to behave immorally, a behavior which is likely to arouse a fair amount of cognitive dissonance. How are people most likely to reduce this dissonance stemming from an immoral act such as lying or cheating?

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change their attitude about the immoral behavior

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According to the authors of your text, why would people experience cognitive dissonance after investing a lot of time and effort in pursuit of a goal that falls short of their expectations?

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Sensible people don't work hard to attain something trivial.

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________ refers to the tendency of people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.

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Justification of effort

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Aronson and Mills (1959) performed an experiment in which college women were invited to join a discussion group about sex. In order to join the group, participants had to undergo either a severe initiation, a mild initiation, or no initiation. Which of the following best describes this study's findings? Women who underwent ________ initiation enjoyed the discussion the ________.

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severe; most

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You have worked extremely hard to attain a goal, but soon realize that the goal is not as exciting as you expected. You will probably

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exaggerate the positive qualities of the goal in order to justify your effort.

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Jorge has just undergone a three-week initiation process to become a member of a fraternity. During the initiation, he was made to do such things as shave his head, run naked through the cafeteria, and sing obnoxious fraternity songs during classes. Jorge now considers the fraternity the best thing that's ever happened to him and is convinced that his fraternity brothers are friends for life. Jorge's attitude towards his fraternity is probably the result of

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Justification of effort

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Who is most likely to enjoy a boring and lackluster rock and roll concert performed by washed-up, fifty-something "has beens"?

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Mick, who has waited in line all night for the tickets

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Janis has just volunteered to undergo treatment for drug addiction. After she leaves the clinic, she is ________ to stay off drugs because her recovery at the clinic was ________.

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likely; a very difficult ordeal

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Suppose that both Oscar and Sam went through hazing rituals for the same fraternity. Oscar went through a very long and involved hazing process while Sam went through relatively mild rituals. After they both got into the fraternity, they realized that there were a lot of negative things associated with membership that they hadn't expected. According to cognitive dissonance, which of the following would you expect to happen?

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Oscar would love the fraternity more than Sam because he went through more to get into it.

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Phil spent an hour and a half running cables and toying with connections in order to receive cable TV in his room. When he was finished, he got fifty channels, but all of them were kind of fuzzy. His roommate, Jason, arrived home when Phil was done, and they both sat down to watch TV. Which one will enjoy the cable TV the most?

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Phil, because of justification of effort

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If a person goes through a demanding process involving lots of effort and hard work to achieve a goal, what would cognitive dissonance suggest that person will think about the experience afterwards?

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"Going through all of that effort was worth it!"

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As you and your friends returned and met up for the first time since high school, you find that you've all taken different paths in life. Based on cognitive dissonance and the principle of justification of effort, who would be the LEAST satisfied with what he or she is currently doing?

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Fiona, who is going to a local college with a loose admissions policy, and whose parents are paying her way

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Your friend Jamie shows you the gift she bought for her mother's birthday. It's an atrociously ugly fake marble statue of an angel, with the saccharine words "My Mother's an Angel" sloppily lettered on the bottom. Jamie asks you what you think, and because her feelings are easily hurt, to spare her, you say, "It's wonderful! Maybe I'll get one for my mom!" In this case, you ________ experience dissonance because there is sufficient ________ justification for your action.

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will not; external

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Two weeks after making a public statement at odds with his previous positions, which politician is most likely to report to his close friends that he sticks by his most recent (contradictory) statement?

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a candidate who couldn't quite figure out why he contradicted himself

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Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell another person that a boring, tedious task was really fun and interesting. The results of their experiment demonstrated that

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minimal external justification can lead to attitude change.

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Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell someone else that a tedious, boring task was really interesting. Participants paid ________ modified their original attitudes because they had ________ for lying.

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$1; little external justification

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Assume that you were a participant in the experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) in which participants were paid either a large or small sum of money to tell an innocent stranger that the boring, tedious task you had just completed was really enjoyable and very interesting. Further assume that you were paid a large amount of money to tell the stranger that lie. In this situation, you would be most likely to

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maintain your original assessment of the task as dull and boring.

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As mentioned in the text, a Yale researcher (Cohen, 1962) paid some students relatively little and others relatively more to write an essay that contradicted their true beliefs about the local police. Results of his experiment demonstrated that

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in the absence of large incentives, students changed their attitudes about the police.

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Imagine that both Vera and Carol are against affirmative action. Vera is offered $50 to write an essay about the benefits of affirmative action, whereas Carol is offered only $1 to write a similar essay. After writing the essays and receiving their payments, both women are asked to report their attitudes toward affirmative action. Assuming that their attitudes were similarly negative at the outset, which of the following results would you expect?

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Carol would be more favorable than Vera toward affirmative action.

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Recall that participants in an experiment presented in the text were provided either large or small incentives to advocate the use and legalization of marijuana. Results of their experiment revealed that dissonance and attitude change occurred when

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incentives were small

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In experiments on counterattitudinal advocacy, people change their attitudes more the lower the external incentives. This finding is inconsistent with the ________ approach to psychology.

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behaviorist

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Recall that in experiments presented in your text (Leippe & Eisenstadt, 1994; 1998), white college students agreed to write essays in favor of doubling funds for minority student scholarships, even though that policy would reduce funds available for majority students. What happened? Participants

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convinced themselves that they supported the policy of expanding aid to minority students.

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According to dissonance theorists, what is the problem with severe punishment to control behaviors?

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Severe punishment serves as an external justification for behavior change.

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Who is most likely to convince him- or herself that he or she believes in the behavior he or she is performing?

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Loren, who turns down the radio because his mother says it interferes with her concentration

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The local police want to convince drivers to obey the fifty-five mile per hour speed limit on the highways. The police chief is convinced that doubling speeding fines is the answer. You've just read the section of Chapter 6 that deals with insufficient punishment. What would you say to him?

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"That's not the way to change drivers' attitudes about obeying the speed limit."

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Threats of severe punishment are NOT likely to change behaviors in the absence of the person who punishes, because such severe threats provide

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external justification for halting the undesirable behavior.

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Because they provide the potential offender ________, threats of harsh punishment seldom produce positive attitude change.

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ample external justification for restraint

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If you wanted to make use of the concept of insufficient punishment, how would you discipline your child when she's misbehaving? Give the child a stern look and tell her

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nothing else if she stops the forbidden behavior.

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According to the principle of insufficient punishment, which of the following parental techniques should be most effective in changing a child's behavior permanently (i.e., even behavior that occurs in the absence of the parent)?

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threat of mild punishment

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According to dissonance theorists, the practice of threatening mild punishment works because it arouses ________ cognitive dissonance and therefore causes ________.

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much; a change in attitude toward the forbidden act

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Mahmoud wants his seven-year-old daughter to learn that littering is bad. According to cognitive dissonance theory, how should Mahmoud teach his daughter not to be a litterbug? Mahmoud should

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give his daughter a stern look whenever she litters.

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Derek likes to bully his little brother Matt. Their mother begins to give Derek the mild punishment of a stern look every time Derek hits Matt. This is sufficient to stop Derek's bullying, and in time, Derek stops bullying Matt even when his mother is not around. According to theories of insufficient punishment, why might this happen?

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Because there was insufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to devalue the forbidden activity.

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Willow's mother took away her television privileges as punishment for missing her curfew when the punishment could have been much more severe, such as being grounded for a week and losing access to her cell phone. Why is Willow's mother using insufficient punishment, according to dissonance theory?

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So that there is insufficient external justification for missing curfew again, and Willow will begin to devalue the forbidden activity.

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Jennifer's dad wants to convince her to do her homework as soon as she gets home from school. To ensure that Jennifer actually does her homework immediately—whether or not he is there to keep an eye on her—Jennifer's dad should provide

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mild threats of punishment if she doesn't begin her homework right away.

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Recall that Aronson and Carlsmith (1963) told preschoolers that they were not allowed to play with a toy that the children had already rated as more attractive than other toys. Half of the children were threatened with mild punishment if they disobeyed, and the other half with severe punishment. When the experimenter left the room, none of the children played with the forbidden toy. When the experimenter returned and asked the children to rate all the toys again, those children who received

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mild threats reduced their dissonance by rating the forbidden toy as less attractive than before.

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When preschoolers were forbidden to play with a very attractive toy, some received mild threats of punishment, and others received severe threats of punishment should they disobey (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963). Because they had ________ justification, children in the mild threat condition experienced ________ dissonance, and changed their rating of the forbidden toy.

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insufficient external; more

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Assume that in experiments conducted by Aronson and his colleagues Sally was randomly assigned to write and deliver a pro-condom speech to be shown to high school students. She also listed all the times she found it awkward or impossible to use condoms in her sexual encounters. After completing these tasks, Sally reduced her dissonance by reporting a greater willingness to use condoms in her future sexual activities. Why? She

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felt like a hypocrite, and changed her attitude to reduce the dissonance.

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Based on the Ben Franklin effect, you are most likely to increase your liking for Tony when

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you lend Tony $10.

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Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy once wrote, "We do not love people so much for the good they have done us as for the good we have done them." This quote is most closely related to the concept of

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the Ben Franklin effect.

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Recall that researchers conducted an experiment in Recall that researchers conducted an experiment in which some participants were asked by the experimenter to return monetary compensation to him, while others were asked by the department secretary to return the money to a fund, and still others received no such request for the return of their compensation. Participants who were approached by the experimenter evaluated him better than did participants in the other two experimental conditions. These findings support the notion of

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the Ben Franklin effect.

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The Ben Franklin effect is named for an incident in which Ben Franklin

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asked a favor of someone who had treated him coldly, and gained an ally.

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The authors of your text describe a series of horrible telephone hoaxes that were done a few years ago in which a caller falsely identified himself as a police officer and had restaurant managers perform unnecessary strip searches and other degrading acts on subordinates. The fact that the managers he called actually did what he instructed them to do illustrates that people very readily.

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will obey someone they think is in authority.

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Alejandro has changed his behavior because of the real or imagined presence of others. This is known as

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conformity.

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Wendy's roommate is laying out her clothes for the first day of classes. Wendy wasn't sure what to wear but now has an idea and picks her outfit to be similar. This type of conformity arises from

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informational social influence.

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It's Libby's first day in college. When she approaches the professor to have an "add" form signed, she listens to other students to see if they address the professor as "Professor," "Dr.," "Mrs.," or by her first name, and then she does the same. This is an example of

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informational social influence.

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Victor goes to a fancy French restaurant. There are utensils on the table that he's never even seen before, and more spoons and forks than he's ever seen on one table. Eager to dine in an appropriate and sophisticated way, Victor secretly watches other diners to see what they do. This is an example of

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informational social influence.

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Khadija has conformed to others' behaviors or attitudes because she believes that their interpretations of an ambiguous situation are more accurate than hers. ________ has occurred.

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Informational social influence

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Informational social influence occurs because

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others' behaviors serve as cues in ambiguous situations.

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You are a little confused about how to address your new boss. Even though you are told that your new supervisor's name is Charlie Rose, you have noticed that everyone at work calls him "Boss." You, too, decide to start calling your supervisor "Boss." This decision is a product of

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informational social influence.

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Your niece Caitlin is deathly afraid of glass elevators. You have just read Chapter 8, and have decided to use informational social influence to convince Caitlin that there is no need to be afraid to ride in glass elevators. How would you apply the concept of informational social influence in this situation?

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Get Caitlin's friends to ride a glass elevator, and ask them to smile and wave to you both as they ascend.

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Reynald is participating in a research study where he is watching a dot of light in a dark room. In time it appears to move. Later, he finds out that it was really stationary. This phenomenon is

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known as the autokinetic effect.

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An important feature of informational social influence is that it often leads to

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private acceptance.

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In which of the following cases is conformity due to information social influence LEAST likely to occur?

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A repairman falls off a ladder and breaks his leg while working in the hospital.

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Rachel is attending Catholic mass for the first time with her best friend Maria. Rachel is unfamiliar with when to sit, when to kneel, or when to stand, and doesn't know when to respond to what the priest says and when to remain silent. When it is time for parishioners to receive Communion, Rachel looks quizzically to Maria, who silently shakes her head. Rachel remains seated while the rest of the congregation files toward the altar. This situation best exemplifies

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informational social influence.

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Which of the following phenomena is most likely to result in private acceptance of an idea or behavior?

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informational social influence

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In the nineteenth century, audience members who knew the opera intimately served as "claques," or experts who signaled others in the audience when to applaud, or as "bisseurs," who signaled when to call for encores. These experts served as a source of ________ for less sophisticated audience members.

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informational social influence

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All of the following are examples of informational social influence EXCEPT:

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You decide to lose weight, because the people you see on the covers of popular magazines are thinner than you are and you want people to like you more.

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Taking into account research on factors that increase informational social influence, which game contestant is most likely to yield to the informational social influence provided by teammates or the audience?

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Joaquin, playing a television game show, who answers a question whose answer he is uncertain of

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In the past ten years, the popular American holiday, Halloween, was "imported" to France by retailers hoping to increase revenues. Essentially, the French learned the traditions such as trick-or-treating and wearing costumes from Americans. This is an example of ________ on an international scale.

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informational social influence

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Elise is participating in research and is placed in a dark room and asked to estimate the movement of a dot of light projected on a screen. This is similar to research by Sherif that demonstrated the power of

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informational social influence.

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Why would Muzafer Sherif, a social psychologist, choose the autokinetic effect (a perceptual illusion) to study social conformity? He wanted

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construct a situation that was ambiguous.

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It could be argued that participants in Muzafer Sherif's (1936) study converged in their estimates of the amount of movement of a point of light because they were avoiding public embarrassment or social censure from other participants. Sherif demonstrated that this was unlikely when he found similar results

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when participants later completed the task alone.

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When participants were first placed in a dark room alone and asked to estimate the apparent movement of a point of light, individuals were consistent in their own estimates, and these estimates differed greatly from participant to participant. When participants made the same estimates in a group setting, their estimates converged. According to Muzafer Sherif (1936), why did this happen? Conformity occurs when people

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can use others' behaviors as cues for what's right.

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Believing that others are right is to ________ as conforming without believing is to ________.

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private acceptance: public compliance

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In a recent study about how to promote energy conservation, Nolan and colleagues (2008) found that simply telling people that their neighbors conserve energy was a more effective means of reducing energy consumption than telling them other reasons why they should conserve. Why did this message work the best?

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Participants were affected by informational social influence.

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Based on the studies conducted by Nolan and colleagues (2008) and Goldstein and colleagues (2008), which approach seems to be most effective at motivating people to behave in ways that are more environmentally friendly?

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informational social influence

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When it is important to provide a correct answer and the stakes are high, people are more likely to

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rely on informational social influence.

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Noor is in a study similar to Baron et al. (1996). She has been asked to select the person she saw in a series of photos. If she's told that her decision is not very important, she will

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conform less than when the decision is very important.

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Informational social influence is most likely to play a significant role in which of the following situations?

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members of a jury trying to reach a verdict in a murder trial

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People are especially likely to conform due to informational social influence

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when the situation is a crisis.

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Not all members of the radio audience of Orson Welles' War of the Worlds broadcast panicked immediately. Indeed, some didn't panic until they looked out of the window and saw empty streets; others didn't panic until they saw streets full of traffic. It was after checking out the situation that these citizens decided that the Martians had indeed invaded Earth. This example illustrates that contagion

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n result when people look to others for the interpretation of ambiguous situations.

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When Orson Welles broadcast War of the Worlds, a fictitious program about a hostile Martian takeover of Earth, many people who heard the program eventually believed the takeover was a real threat and panicked. The power of ________ was a major cause of this widespread panic.

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informational social influence

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Mass psychogenic illness, when many people in a group suddenly begin to feel sick, shows the power of

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informational social influence.

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The major downside risk of informational social influence is that the more ________ the situation is, the more we rely on others who are no more likely to be knowledgeable or accurate than we ourselves are, leading us each to adopt others' mistakes and misinterpretations.

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ambiguous

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First-year college students may be more susceptible than seniors to informational social influence because

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the situations they encounter are ambiguous.

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When Steven goes to his fraternity meeting, all of the following factors will increase the impact of informational social influence on him EXCEPT the

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importance of the group.

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________ conformity is to the desire to be right as ________ conformity is to the desire to be liked.

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Informational; normative

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Informational social influence is to ________ as normative social influence is to ________.

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private acceptance; public compliance

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The authors of your text report instances of teens taking a "polar plunge" by jumping into freezing water. Which of the following best explains such dangerous behavior?

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the power of normative social influence

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The concept of social norms refers to

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implicit or explicit rules a group has for acceptable beliefs, values, or behavior.

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When you and your friends greet each other, it's customary for you to give each other a special, complicated handshake. This handshake can be considered the ________ for greeting each other in your group.

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social norm

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Which of the following is an example of a social norm in mainstream U.S. culture?

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using your turn signal to indicate which direction you will be turning

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In essence, normative social influence arises from humans' fundamental

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need for companionship, affection, and acceptance.

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When people conform in attitudes or behaviors in order to be accepted and liked by others, social psychologists say that ________ has occurred.

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normative social influence

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Imagine that you are attending a new high school and would like to make friends. On the first day of school, you observe that all of the students in your homeroom are crumpling paper into balls and throwing them on the floor. You begin to do the same. You have conformed to the group's behavior due to

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normative social influence.

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Going along with the crowd (e.g., doing the ice bucket challenge, smoking pot, polar plunging) because of a fear of social exclusion is an example of

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normative social influence.

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Which type of conformity is most at odds with our cultural ethos of individualism and independence and most closely matches the negative stereotypes of those who conform as being "weaklings"?

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normative conformity

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Solomon Asch (1951, 1956) embarked on a series of studies in which participants were asked to estimate the lengths of lines that clearly differed in length. Asch originally undertook these experiments to

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show that in unambiguous situations, people will behave in reasonable, rational ways.

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Solomon Asch (1951, 1956) conducted a series of studies in which participants were asked to estimate the lengths of lines that clearly differed in length. Participants then heard the other group members give correct estimations for some trials, and blatantly incorrect estimations for others. When confederates in the study gave an incorrect response, how did participants respond?

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They tended to conform on at least one of the trials.

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In a series of experiments, why did Solomon Asch (1951, 1956) ask participants to judge the lengths of lines that were clearly different from one another? Asch

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wanted to study conformity in unambiguous situations.

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Recall that Solomon Asch (1951, 1956) asked participants to estimate the lengths of lines. In response to the incorrect answers of others, some participants actually denied what their eyes saw.

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These studies provide evidence of normative social influence.

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In a series of studies by Solomon Asch (1951, 1956), when participants judged the lengths of lines alone rather than in a group of confederates, their judgments were accurate about 99 percent of the time. Still, when other participants made judgments in a group of people who gave the wrong answers, they reported incorrect judgments. These findings suggest that

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normative social influence was at work.

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What is the moral or the take-home message of Solomon Asch's (1951, 1956, 1957) series of experiments in which participants were asked to judge the lengths of lines? People will go to great lengths

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not to look like fools in front of others.

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In a variation of his standard experiment, Solomon Asch (1957) found that when participants could write their responses on a piece of paper, conformity dropped dramatically. This finding indicates that participants exhibited ________, not ________, during the standard experiment.

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public compliance; private acceptance

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Studies of the importance of normative social influence are particularly noteworthy in that they show that people conform even

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to strangers they will never see again.

question

Amanda is assigned to a group to take a quiz (which actually doesn't count towards the course grade). For one of the questions, she is certain the correct answer is C, but the rest of her group all says the answer is A. Based on information about the Asch line studies, how would Amanda be likely to respond?

answer

She would go along with the group, but still believe C is correct.

question

The Asch line studies were conducted over fifty years ago, and society has changed quite a bit. A recent study involving fMRI and the line judgment task attempted to replicate some of Asch's results. What were the results of this study?

answer

Results were very similar to those of Asch's original studies.

question

Sillain is participating in a fMRI study replicating Asch's line judgment study. When she performed alone at judging the figures, or when she conformed to the wrong answer, what area of her brain was most likely active?

answer

the area dedicated to vision

question

Results from a recent fMRI study replicated Asch's line judgment study. The results of the fMRI suggest that when participants judged rotated figures and stated a correct answer when the others around them unanimously stated an incorrect answer, the area of the brain that was active was the

answer

amygdala, which is associated with negative emotions.

question

Recall that in a study by Baron et al. (1996), participants in one condition were asked to select perpetrators after a lineup in conditions of low ambiguity, so that participants in the control condition made very few mistakes. Recall also that some participants were told that the task was one that was being designed for use by the police department and were offered $20 if they were the most accurate, while others were told that it was just a laboratory task under development. This condition of the study found that

answer

the more important it was to participants to be correct, the less they conformed to other group members' answers.

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Imagine that you are on the Olympics Planning Committee. Nine out of 10 of the committee members hold the same opinions. However, one member, Laura, consistently deviates from the group's opinion. How is your group most likely to act toward Laura to bring her in line with the group's opinion? The group will

answer

first increase communication with Laura. When that doesn't work, the group will ignore and punish Laura.

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The norm in your large psychology class is that students will remain quiet enough for others to hear the professor and one another during lectures and discussions. When you talk loudly to the person next to you and violate the norm, like the deviant in Stanley Schachter's "Johnny Rocco" study, you can expect that your classmates will first

answer

talk to you, hoping to change your behavior.

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If a person deviates from the norms of a group, the first thing the group is likely to do is

answer

try to persuade him to conform.

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In the "Johnny Rocco" studies conducted by Schachter (1951), he found that when a confederate stubbornly deviated from the opinion of the rest of the group, the confederate then was more likely to

answer

be voted out of the group.

question

You need to give a presentation in your class about Bibb Latané's social impact theory (1981). You want to focus on the three variables that influence the likelihood that people will conform to social influence pressures. Your lecture will include:

answer

strength, immediacy, and number.

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Mark is a Democrat. He just joined a Welfare Reform Committee made up of nine Republicans. Mark holds a minority opinion on this issue. If Mark wants his opinion to influence the group's final recommendations, he should

answer

express a consistent, unwavering viewpoint.

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Wilson is part of a group and has a different opinion from the rest of the group. He can successfully influence the majority group through

answer

informational social influence.

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Felicia is initially the only member of the jury who believes that the defendant is innocent. After hearing and debating Felicia's arguments, the jury unanimously declares the defendant not guilty. The jurors' decision will most likely be characterized by

answer

private acceptance.

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Majorities tend to rely on ________, whereas minorities tend to rely on ________.

answer

normative social influence; informational social influence

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Majority influence is to ________ as ________ is to private acceptance.

answer

public compliance; minority influence

question

Milgram found that about ________ percent of his participants went all the way to 450 volts in his original experiment.

answer

question

Milgram surveyed both a panel of Yale undergraduates and a panel of psychology professors before he conducted his original experiment. In these surveys, he found that

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most people predicted that less than 1 percent of participants would go to 450 volts.

question

Results from Milgram's study, in which participants were led to believe that they were being asked to shock another person at lethal levels, suggest that people

answer

will obey authority, even when perhaps they shouldn't.

question

In a famous social psychological experiment, participants were led to believe they were to deliver electric shocks of increasing potency to a "learner" for a memorization task. Participants were encouraged to continue even though the learner was clearly in pain, and most participants, in fact, did continue shocking the learner. What famous study is this describing?

answer

Milgram's studies of obedience

question

In all likelihood, participants in Milgram's obedience experiments (conducted in the 1960s and 1970s) were willing to administer increasingly severe shocks to a confederate learner because they were concerned that the experimenter would be disappointed or perhaps even angry with them. Such concerns reflect the power of ________ to induce obedience to authority.

answer

normative social influence

question

Which of the following variations of Milgram's (1963) original obedience experiment provides the strongest evidence of the operation of normative conformity when participants administer electric shocks to a confederate learner?

answer

When another (confederate) participant refuses to continue, participants obey less.

question

Which of the following types of conformity pressures induced most of the participants in Stanley Milgram's obedience studies to deliver escalating and life-threatening shocks to an innocent learner?

answer

both informational and normative social influence

question

Recall that Milgram conducted a variation on his original obedience experiment. In this variation, there were two confederates in addition to the participant. When the participant threw the switch at 150 volts, one of the confederates refused to continue, even though the experimenter commanded him or her to do so. In this variation, only about 10 percent (compared to about 65 percent in the original study) went to the highest shock level. This experimental variation demonstrated the power of ________ in eliciting obedience.

answer

normative social influence

question

Given the role of informational and normative social influence processes in contributing to participants' willingness to shock a confederate learner (e.g., Milgram, 1974), which of the following situations would yield the LEAST obedience?

answer

Before leaving the room, two experimenters disagree on instructions before finally telling participants to take their time and choose their own shock levels.

question

In a variation on his original experiment, Milgram had the experimenter leave the room after telling participants that they could deliver whatever level of shock they chose. After the experimenter left, a confederate suggested that the participant increase the shock by one level each time the learner made a mistake. In this variation, only about 20 percent of participants went to the highest shock level. The fact that the authority figure's presence made much more of a difference than that of a peer suggests the role of

answer

informational influence.

question

In an alternative version of his original experiment, Milgram used two experimenters, who began to disagree with each other when the participants administered 150 volts and the learner began to complain. In this variation, participants refused to continue. According to the authors of your text, this variation demonstrates the importance of ________ in influencing obedience.

answer

clear informational influence

question

The authors of your text note that across the studies that Milgram did investigating obedience to authority, the one factor that never made a consistent difference in how participants behaved was

answer

pleas for help from the victim.

question

According to the authors, in part because the experimental procedures were so ________, it was difficult for participants in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments (e.g., Milgram, 1974) to abandon the "Obey legitimate authority" norm in favor of the norm that says, "Do no harm."

answer

fast-paced

question

In addition to the role of both informational and normative conformity pressures, participants in Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments (e.g., Milgram, 1974) administered escalating shocks to a confederate learner because they

answer

became trapped in conflicting norm demands.

question

According to the authors of your text, once participants in Milgram's studies delivered the first shock to the learner, this created internal pressure to obey. This dissonance made it more difficult later for participants to

answer

draw the line as to what exactly was too strong of a shock.

question

Execution teams who work at prisons tend to deny personal responsibility for the executions and state that they are just following orders. Such justifications for taking a human life illustrate that when people obey authority they can

answer

externally justify their actions.

question

If an executioner were to be questioned about how he could live with himself after taking someone's life, one likely response (according to the authors of your text) is

answer

"I'm just following orders."

question

One of the major concerns about the Milgram studies on obedience was

answer

there were several major ethical concerns.

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In Milgram's studies on obedience, the experimenter repeatedly told the participants that they must continue with the study. This aspect of Milgram's studies violated the ethical principle of

answer

the right to withdraw.

question

Milgram's studies on obedience to authority violated several ethical principles. These include all of the following EXCEPT

answer

no debriefing period.

question

Despite public outcry and rigorous ethical guidelines on research, Burger (2009) did a replication of Milgram's studies on obedience. How was Burger able to conduct these studies?

answer

He made several changes to adhere to modern ethical guidelines.

question

In order for Burger (2009) to conduct a study replicating Milgram's work on obedience, he had to modify Milgram's procedures. Which of the following is one of the modifications he made?

answer

He stopped the study at 150 volts.

question

Burger (2009) conducted a replication of Milgram's studies on obedience. One of the modifications to Milgram's original method was that Burger stopped the study after participants had reached 150 volts (rather than 450). Why did he choose the 150-volt cut-off point?

answer

In Milgram's work, participants who were going to disobey usually did so by 150 volts.

question

In Burger's (2009) modernized version of Milgram's experiments on obedience, there are several modern "updates." In what ways was Burger's sample of participants different from Milgram's?

answer

It was diverse in gender, age, and education level.

question

Burger's (2009) replication of Milgram's studies on obedience to authority suggests that compared with people in the 1970s, people in 2006 were ________ likely to obey authority.

answer

just as

question

In Burger's (2009) replication of Milgram's studies on obedience to authority, he included both men and women. Milgram included women in only one of his studies. Which of the following is true about the gender differences Burger found?

answer

There were no significant gender differences, just as in Milgram's study.

question

According to the authors of your text, the work of Milgram and Burger on obedience to authority is a clear example of which conflicting goals of science?

answer

discover new knowledge; do no harm

question

Even though the authors point to a number of situational variables that contributed to the destructive obedience of Stanley Milgram's participants (e.g., normative and informational conformity pressures, conflicting norms), it might still be argued that people have, lurking deep within them, sadistic tendencies that can easily be elicited by situational variables. What experimental findings by Milgram call this "personal attribution" into question?

answer

When participants could choose the level of shock, they administered very low levels.

question

The authors of your text discuss several factors that led to the high degree of obedience in the Milgram experiment. All of the following are implicated EXCEPT

answer

aggression.

question

Assume that when exposed to a mirror, chimpanzees will use the mirror to aid in grooming (e.g., to pick food from their teeth) and to entertain themselves by making faces. The chimps' behavior in front of the mirror would suggest that

answer

these great apes have a sense of "self."

question

Researchers briefly anesthetized chimpanzees and painted an odorless red dye on their heads. When they awoke and looked in the mirror, the chimps immediately reached to touch their brows and ears where the dye was. These findings suggest that chimps

answer

develop a sense of self-recognition comparable to that of two-year-old humans.

question

According to the textbook, research on the development of the self-concept using the "red dye" test (placing a red dot on the forehead of the child and then showing the child his or her reflection in the mirror and seeing whether the child touches the red dot on the "baby in the mirror" or his or her own head) indicates that the self-concept in human infants develops at, on average, age

answer

18-24 months.

question

Which of the following would be most likely to reach to touch a spot of red dye on his head when seeing his or her reflection in a mirror?

answer

an adult chimpanzee

question

The development of our sense of self is partly influenced by the culture in which we grow up. For example, in Western cultures, people tend to have an ________ view of the self, whereas in non-Western cultures, people tend to have an ________ view of the self.

answer

independent; interdependent

question

Whereas Americans have a proverb, "The squeaky wheel gets the grease," Japanese have a proverb that states "The nail that stands out gets pounded down." These two different proverbs mirror social-psychological research that has demonstrated that people in Asian cultures

answer

have a more interdependent concept of self than do Americans.

question

The authors of your text describe Masako Owada's decision to give up her career and marry the crown prince of Japan. Many Americans viewed her decision as to the result of coercion and sexism. How do many Japanese view her decision?

answer

as a natural consequence of being connected and obligated to others

question

When asked to finish a sentence beginning "I am...," respondents from Asian countries are more likely to mention ________, because they grew up in a(n) ________ culture.

answer

group membership; interdependent

question

Consider the following self-description: "It's important to me to make others happy. I work hard to cooperate with others, and seldom get into arguments. My friends are more important to me than my professional success." A(n) ________ is most likely to have provided such a self-description.

answer

executive living in Tokyo, Japan

question

"My happiness depends on the happiness of those around me" and "I enjoy being unique and different from others in many respects" are two items from Singelis's (1994) scale, which was designed to measure individual differences in

answer

independence and interdependence.

question

Singelis (1994) administered his independence and interdependence questionnaire to students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. He found that Asian-American students agreed more with such statements as "It is important to me to respect decisions made by the group" and "My happiness depends on the happiness of those around me" than did Caucasian-American students. These findings suggest that

answer

one's culture influences one's self-concept.

question

States that were settled ______ by European Americans tend to have a more independent view of the self.

answer

more recently

question

Unique baby names are a sign of a(n) _______ self-construal.

answer

independent

question

The authors of your text explain four components of the self. Which of the following is NOT one of these four functions?

answer

self-justification

question

When people in Western cultures learn about the interdependent view of the self and people in Asian cultures learn of the independent view of the self, what is the typical reaction?

answer

Many have difficulty understanding how the others could view the world in such a way.

question

When we are in a state of ________, we evaluate or compare our current behavior against our internal standards and values.

answer

self-awareness

question

Jake and Martin are standing at the counter of the convenience store, and Jake—who has just failed his psychology exam—is animatedly telling Martin that the exam was unfair and that his professor is unreasonable. As he takes his change, Jake sees his image on the security camera. This causes him to wonder whether he actually studied enough for the exam. Jake's self-scrutiny in this situation would be predicted by ________ theory.

answer

self-awareness

question

It's Halloween, but you don't want to be running back and forth to answer the door. To avoid any "tricks," you decide to leave a large container of candy on the porch. You've just read about self-awareness theory, and you have a hunch about how to keep greedy trick-or-treaters from taking more than their fair share of the candy. You decide to

answer

place a large mirror behind the candy, so that children can see themselves as they approach.

question

According to self-awareness theory, under which of the following circumstances would an individual be most highly motivated to avoid self-awareness?

answer

directly after receiving a low grade on an important test

question

All of the following statements about self-awareness are true EXCEPT that

answer

people always find self-focus aversive.

question

From the perspective of self-awareness theory, alcohol abuse, binge eating, and suicide are alike in that they

answer

provide temporary or permanent relief from unpleasant self-awareness.

question

All of the following EXCEPT ________ are likely to be used as escapes from aversive self-awareness.

answer

doing one's makeup

question

According to the idea of "telling more than we can know," one reason that introspection is sometimes not an accurate way to learn about oneself is that

answer

many of our mental processes occur outside our awareness.

question

Where do many causal theories such as "Absence makes the heart grow fonder" come from?

answer

culture

question

Which of the following is an example of a causal theory for behavior/feelings?

answer

"Mondays are bad days."

question

Jenny is trying to decide how she feels about Garth, so she sits down and lists the reasons why she feels the way she does. By doing this, Jenny runs the risk of incurring a

answer

reasons-generated attitude change.

question

Analyzing the reasons for why we feel what we do is not always the best strategy for making sense of our feelings. This is because

answer

reasons that are easy to verbalize are not always the most influential reasons.

question

________ occur(s) when people assume that their "true" attitudes match the underlying reasons that seem plausible or that are easy to verbalize in the moment.

answer

Reasons-generated attitude change

question

Why, when we introspect about the reasons underlying our attitudes or feelings, do we believe the explanations we arrive at seem reasonable?

answer

The reasons behind them were easy to verbalize.

question

Considering the research on reasons-generated attitude change, in which case would you expect the greatest consistency between the person's attitude and their future behavior?

answer

Alicia, who sits and daydreams about the love she feels for T.J.

question

Robert sits down and writes out a list of all of the reasons he is in love with Eunice. As he is trying to make his list, he finds himself writing criticisms of their relationship as well, such as "We have very little in common." His list indicates that perhaps he should break up with Eunice, yet his heart tells him they share a special connection. According to information from the text about reasons-generated attitude change, what should Robert do?

answer

Listen to his heart and initial attitude—stay with Eunice.

question

________ theory posits that when our attitudes or feelings are ambiguous, we infer our internal states by observing our own behaviors and the situation in which they occur.

answer

Self-perception

question

A basic tenet of self-perception theory is that we infer our feelings from our behavior when

answer

the reasons for our attitudes or feelings are ambiguous.

question

Self-perception theory argues that when our attitudes or feelings aren't clear, we often infer them by observing

answer

our own behavior.

question

According to the text, self-perception theory is most closely related to which other theory in social psychology?

answer

attribution theory

question

According to self-perception theory, we infer the kind of person we are and what our attitudes are by

answer

observing our own behaviors, just as we would observe others' behavior.

question

While completing a personality test, Craig comes to an item that asks him if he sees himself as shy and introverted. Craig reflects on some of his recent behavior. He reasons that since he generally does not talk much in class discussions and tends to avoid large parties, he must be shy and introverted. Which of the following strategies for self-knowledge is Craig using?

answer

self-perception

question

Simone runs simply because it gives her pleasure to exercise outside and to leave her daily worries behind as she works up a sweat. In this instance, Simone is ________ to run.

answer

intrinsically motivated

question

________ refers to the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it, not because we expect external rewards.

answer

Intrinsic motivation

question

Pablo had always gotten much satisfaction out of caring for his brothers and sisters when they were sick. A few months ago, Pablo's father convinced him to take a job at a hospital as a nurse's aide so that he could earn money doing what he enjoyed. Now that Pablo has been working at the hospital for a while, he no longer enjoys caring for sick people as much as he did before he took the job. One reason for Pablo's attitude change may be that the job has undermined his ________ for helping others.

answer

intrinsic motivation

question

You assume that Franklin is intrinsically motivated to write a course paper because

answer

Franklin seems to savor immersing himself in writing.

question

Which of the following is most likely to increase intrinsic motivation?

answer

internal attributions

question

Intrinsic motivation is to ________ as extrinsic motivation is to ________.

answer

internal attribution; external attribution

question

According to the authors of your text, ________ explains why providing young children large rewards for reading (e.g., money, prizes) might actually backfire and convince them that they don't really like reading as much as they thought at first.

answer

the overjustification effect

question

Stella is very serious about dancing and starts college as a dance major. The more serious she gets about dancing, the more she worries about the pressure to succeed and the rewards associated with succeeding. She finds that dancing feels like a chore and something she has to do rather than wants to do. Her change in her views about dance is due to what social psychologists call

answer

overjustification.

question

According to the authors of your text, the overjustification effect is the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by something

answer

extrinsic, thus undermining their intrinsic motivation.

question

Based on the information in your text about intrinsic motivation, who would be most likely to lose their enthusiasm for reading if a "Read for Cash" program were implemented in their school?

answer

children who enjoy reading to begin with

question

Based on the idea of overjustification, if you have a group of children who already enjoy reading, which of the following would be most likely to decrease their intrinsic motivation?

answer

rewarding them for each book they read

question

According to the authors of your text, extrinsic rewards are most likely to diminish intrinsic motivation when

answer

intrinsic motivation was initially high.

question

Rewards are not as likely to undermine intrinsic motivation when

answer

they depend on how well people perform the task in question.

question

If you are experiencing physiological arousal (heart pounding, feeling warm and a bit shaky), according to the two-factor theory of emotion, what would you do next to provide an interpretation of the arousal?

answer

look for cues from the environment

question

At the amusement park, Keon's heart begins beating rapidly and his palms begin to sweat. He reasons that since he is next in line for a ride on a roller coaster, he must be feeling exhilarated. This sequence of events in which Keon first perceives his arousal and subsequently labels it is consistent with the

answer

two-factor theory of emotion.

question

Imagine that you are a participant in the experiment conducted by Schachter and Singer (1962). You were injected with a vitamin compound called Suproxin and told that you might experience an increased heart rate, hand tremors, and sweaty palms. Further imagine that while completing a questionnaire, the person in the room with you begins to act angry, tears up the questionnaire, and storms from the room. You are likely to ________ because ________.

answer

ignore this situational cue; you know the source of your arousal

question

Schachter and Singer's (1962) experiment in which participants were injected with epinephrine—allegedly as part of a study of the effects of a vitamin compound on vision—is one of the most famous studies in social psychology because the experiment showed that

answer

emotions can be the consequence of self-perception processes.

question

Why would cognitive attributional processes be involved in helping us label emotions?

answer

In many situations, there is more than one plausible cause for arousal.

question

Which of the following situations best exemplifies the misattribution of arousal?

answer

You are exhausted after an all-nighter, take two caffeine tabs to stay awake, and panic when you see the content of your psychology exam.

question

If you are using the misattribution of arousal principle to plan a first date and you really want your partner to be attracted to you, which of the following activities would you choose?

answer

ride the rollercoasters at an amusement park

question

Suppose that Lauren has always wanted to go out with Sam. She calls him up and asks him to go to a movie with her, and he accepts enthusiastically. Under which of the following conditions will she experience the most joy?

answer

She had taken some allergy medicine that, unknown to her, causes mild arousal.

question

While riding a harrowing rollercoaster, Jim notices that the person sitting next to him is extremely attractive and he resolves to get her phone number when the ride is over. Jim is probably doing this because he is

answer

misattributing his arousal from the rollercoaster ride to sexual attraction.

question

Recall that Dutton and Aron (1974) had an attractive confederate approach men either on a high, narrow, swaying suspension bridge, or else on the other side of the bridge where they were sitting. More men called the woman after she approached them on the scary bridge. Why?

answer

Men misattributed their fear as sexual attraction.

question

Recall that Dutton and Aron (1974) had an attractive female confederate approach men either on a high, narrow, swaying suspension bridge, or else on the other side of the bridge where they were sitting. In thinking about processes of misattribution of arousal, which group of men was more likely to call the confederate later and ask her for a date?

answer

Those who were approached on the bridge.

question

Why does misattribution of arousal happen?

answer

You are aware of arousal, but there are multiple plausible causes for it.

question

Misattribution of arousal can best be defined as the process by which people make

answer

mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel as they do.

question

Recall that in a variation of his other work with great apes, Gallup (1997) compared the ability of chimps reared in social groups and chimps reared in isolation to recognize themselves in the mirror. Gallup's results suggest that

answer

for many primates, social interaction is crucial for developing a sense of self.

question

One of the chief executive functions of the ________ is making choices about what to do.

answer

self

question

Which of the following is the best example of the self-control function of the self?

answer

making a plan about how to study and succeed academically

question

Thought suppression is much like self-control in that they both

answer

take up mental resources.

question

________ requires energy and spending it on one task limits the amount that can be spent on other things.

answer

Self-control

question

According to research, when participants were asked to first suppress a thought, they later performed worse ________ in the second task.

answer

at containing their laughter at a funny video

question

Sometimes people find it difficult to correctly interpret why they are experiencing physiological arousal, and look to their situation for a good interpretation. Consider the evidence for the idea of misattribution of arousal: first, state what misattribution of arousal is; second, under what circumstances is it most likely to happen; and third, how would you use misattribution of arousal to your advantage if you were trying to encourage someone to be attracted to you?

answer

First, misattribution of arousal is when people sense that they are physiologically aroused (i.e., shaky hands, sweaty, pounding heart) and cannot readily interpret why they are aroused because there are multiple interpretations available to them, and thus make an incorrect attribution for their arousal. Second, this is likely to occur when people are in a situation in which there are several possible causes for their arousal, rather than just one. Third, in order to use misattribution of arousal to perhaps enhance how attracted someone is to me, I would put myself and the person I'm attracted to in a situation with high arousal; it may be that we go jogging together, or see a suspenseful movie; perhaps if it's Halloween we would go through a haunted house, or see a loud rock concert. (There are many ways to increase arousal, thus many possible examples a student could use for the third part of the question.)

question

Many social psychologists assert that much of our sense of self arises from our interactions with or observations of others: in effect, that the self is social. How does Leon Festinger's social comparison theory fit this conceptualization self?

answer

Social comparison theory posits that we are motivated to evaluate ourselves, our attitudes, and our abilities. Sometimes the nonsocial environment doesn't provide enough information (i.e., objective criteria) to afford these evaluations. When this happens, we often turn to others to evaluate our own abilities; we engage in social comparison. We are most likely to compare ourselves to others when there are no objective standards and when we are unsure of some self-aspects. We engage in upward social comparison when we want to be accurate, and in downward social comparison when we want to feel good about ourselves.

question

Josie has just been diagnosed with cancer. According to the information presented in your text, first state what upward social comparisons and downward social comparisons are, then explain what Josie would gain by making an upward and a downward social comparison.

answer

An upward social comparison is when a person compares him or herself with someone better than they are: perhaps an expert. Downward social comparisons are when a person compares him or herself with someone worse than they are, and is more likely in cancer patients. Josie may make upward social comparisons against cancer survivors as a way of learning strategies to cope with and survive cancer. She may be inspired by their stories. Josie would make downward social comparisons against people with more advanced stages of cancer than she has—or even people who died from cancer—in order to enhance her sense of self and feel better about her situation.

question

On Halloween, you decide to do an experiment. When the trick-or-treaters arrive at your house, you have them stand in a line on your front porch. You stay outside with the group and let each child enter your house individually. You tell them they can take one piece of candy from the bowl that is sitting on a table. Half of the time you put the candy bowl in front of a big mirror. The other half of the time there is no mirror present. All of the children may be tempted to take more than one piece of candy. Which children will be LEAST likely to give in to temptation?

answer

those in the mirror condition

question

Your little sister enjoys taking time out of her day to make bead necklaces. A birthday party is coming up, and you decide you want to give a necklace to each person at the party. She offers to make a necklace for each of your friends, but for added motivation you give her a dollar for each one she makes. Which of the following is most likely to happen?

answer

After the party, your sister will enjoy making beads less than she did before because you rewarded her for something she already liked to do.

question

Which of the following is most true about self-handicapping?

answer

Women are more critical of people who self-handicap than are men and are less likely to engage in behavioral self-handicapping than are men.

question

When people focus attention on themselves, they

answer

evaluate and compare their behavior to their to their internal standards and values.

question

Which of the following statements best illustrates self-perception theory?

answer

"I often don't know what I like until I see what I do."

question

Suppose you are a parent and want your children to do well in school. Which of the following is likely to work the best?

answer

tell them that academic ability is something that they can cultivate and grow if they work hard

question

Under which of the following conditions is Khalid most likely to feel romantic attraction toward Heather?

answer

Khalid and Heather nearly get into a serious car accident, and both are terrified. Then Heather gives Khalid a hug and tells him that she really likes him.

question

According to self-perception theory, which of the following audience members would enjoy the taping of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart the most?

answer

Stephen, who noticed that he was laughing more than other people

question

Which of the following is true?

answer

People always prefer to compare themselves to others who are doing better than they are.

question

One afternoon at work Rachel has a meeting with her boss, who is wearing the silliest-looking outfit Rachel has ever seen. Rachel is tempted to laugh and make fun of her boss, but she knows this would be a bad idea. Under which of the following conditions would Rachel be most likely to resist the temptation to make fun of her boss?

answer

Rachel spent all morning writing a difficult report, but she believes that willpower is an unlimited resource and that she thus has a lot of it.

question

Eduardo is tempted to eat some of his roommate's cookies, even though his roommate told him not to. Under which of the following conditions would Eduardo be mostly likely to resist the temptation to eat the cookies?

answer

Eduardo had spent a few minutes praying earlier in the day.

question

Amanda is at a team picnic with her coach and fellow soccer players. Which of the following is the best example of ingratiation?

answer

Amanda tells her coach that the quinoa salad he made was delicious, even though she thinks it tasted like dirt.

question

Ben is worried that he will do poorly on his psychology test. Which of the following is the best example of behavioral self-handicapping?

answer

Instead of studying the night before, he stays up late watching movies on his computer. Right before the test, he tells his friends that he saw some great movies instead of studying.

question

Ben is worried that he will do poorly on his psychology test. Which of the following is the best example of reported self-handicapping?

answer

He spends a couple of extra hours studying. Then, right before the test, he tells his friends that he isn't feeling very well.

question

Asch Study

answer

subject was in a group of confederates. the group was shown 3 lines and asked to compare them to another line and state the one that was the same length as the 4th line. The confederates at first all gave the correct answer as did the subject. then they all gave he wrong answer and the subject usually followed their lead. this showed how much of an impact conformity has on us and how it works.

question

When former President bush issued the final approval to invade Iraq, he asked whether anyone had any last thoughts or recommendations. When no one commented, the order was given. The authors give this as an example of how

answer

groups do not always make decision when they are cohesive and want to please their leader

question

When social psychologists define a social group as a collection of interdependent people, they mean that

answer

members influence one another

question

In social groups, interdependence is reflected in

answer

influencing and being influenced

question

Which of the following collections of people best represents the social psychological concept of a group

answer

deliberating members of a twelve person jury

question

According to the definition provided in your text, which of the following qualifies as a group?

answer

an author, illustrator, and an editor working on a book together over the internet.

question

What do a sorority, your family and the LA Lakers have in common?

answer

They are all groups

question

Researchers such as Baumeister and Leary argue that the need to belong to groups is present in all societies because

answer

group membership has conferred evolutionary advantages to humans

question

The idea that people have an innate need to belong to groups is consistent with the finding that people in all cultures

answer

are motivated to form relationships with others

question

Which of the following is not a benefit associated with groups, according to the authors of your text?

answer

making better decision when the stakes are high

question

Which of the following will give the greatest sense of belonging to a group an da sense of distinctiveness from others?

answer

being a member of the psychology honors society

question

According to research, most people will recall a room temperature that is ______ when they are asked to recall being rejected by others. Why is this?

answer

lower; rejection is chilling

question

According to social-psychological reasoning, a large "student body" is NOT a social group because

answer

each student cannot possibly interact possibly interact with all other students.

question

Although social groups vary tremendously families sororities sports teams, religious congregations), they are all alike in that

answer

actions are guided by norms

question

We will not talk about other members behind their backs, and we will never divulge one another's secrets to anyone inside or outside this group." The preceding statement reflects

answer

a group norm

question

Don't talk during the movie and cross the street at the corner or crosswalk are examples of

answer

social norms

question

In Dan's family, it's customary to ear a nice pair of jeans and a shirt to a wedding, but in Blake's family, it's typical to wear a suit and tie, if not a tuxedo, to wedding. This example demonstrates that norms

answer

can vary depending on the group

question

Rachida refuses to follow important social norms of her group. She will be

answer

shunned by other group members

question

Whereas _____ specify how all group members should behave, _____ specify how individuals in particular positions should behave

answer

norms; roles

question

How do norms differ from roles? Norms ______, whereas roles ______.

answer

Apply to all group members; apply to specific group members

question

Josh is the present of his college residence hall, and he is therefore expected to ac in a respectable, dignified manner when he attends campus functions. What social psychological phenomenon does this illustrate?

answer

a social role

question

Shared group expectations about how particular group members are expected to behave are called

answer

roles

question

Recall that in the Stanford Prison Study conducted by Zimbardo, guards became increasingly aggressive and prisoners became increasing submissive and withdrawn, all in under a week. Results of this study suggest that

answer

social roles can take on a power all their own

question

Which study discussed in your text, best mirrors the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib?

answer

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Study

question

According to Zimbardo, why would US soldiers abuse the prisoners they were ordered to guard?

answer

the situation of being a prison guard was a bad barrel

question

The abuse of Iraqi prisoners by us soldiers at abu ghraib best illustrates

answer

the strength of a powerful situation

question

The qualities of a group that tie members together and promote liking between members are known as

answer

group cohesiveness

question

Group cohesiveness is almost always positively correlated with all of the following except

answer

effective problem solving

question

You belong to a study group that your math instructor assigned you to in the beginning of the semester. Your group's task is to solve several problems every week. What type of group according to your text would lead to optimal performance?

answer

a group that isn't all that cohesive

question

When is high cohesiveness likely to be a problem for a group?

answer

when the group's task is to solve a problem

question

A high level of group cohesiveness would be least beneficial to which of the following groups?

answer

members of a political campaign team developing a strategy

question

In cirque de soleil, performers include highly choreographed acrobats, dancers, actors and gymnasts. In order to perform their best, these performs should be

answer

a cohesive group

question

According to your text, group members tend to ____ in age, sex beliefs and opinions.

answer

be similar

question

Which person is least likely to be in a group with the other three?

answer

Lauren: age twenty five, single, liberal waitress

question

Why do group members tend to be homogeneous?

answer

many groups attract people who are similar and groups tend to operate in ways that encourage similarity in the members

question

In a study conducted by Zajonc and his colleagues, they examined the question of weather organisms perform better in the presence of others or alone, using ____ as participants.

answer

cockroaches

question

Benefits to performance due to social facilitation will most likely occur when

answer

the task is simple and well learned

question

The presenc eof others will facilitate performance for

answer

Tim, who is washing his car as his neighbors watch.

question

Who will probably be most successful at performing his or her task?

answer

Tara, an expert bowler, bowling in a crowded alley with a audience of friends

question

Adedle has never driven a car with a manual transmission before that is, shes never had to decide when to shift gears, etc. She's just bought a care with manual transmission, and wants to practice driving it before she take sit on the highway. What should she do?

answer

drive the car alone until she gets the hang of it

question

Dozens of social psychological experiments on the topic of social facilitation have employed people and a variety of animals and insects. One consistent finding has emerged from these many studies:

answer

The presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks

question

Recall that Zajonc and his colleagues employed the lowly cockroach in their studies of social facilitation. In the presence of other cockroaches, roaches would run faster down a straightaway to escape a bright light than they would alone, but took linger in the presence of a roach audience when the escape route was more complicated. These finding's support the idea that

answer

the presence of other members of a species elicits the most dominant response.

question

When people or roaches under take a difficult task, the presence of others ____ performance; when they undertake a simple talks, the presence of others ____ performance.

answer

impairs; enhances

question

Social facilitation refers to the tendency of people to perform ____ on simple tasks and ____ on complex tasks when others are present.

answer

Better, worse

question

Complete the following analogy regarding social facilitation. Better _____:; worse ; _________________.

answer

simple; complex

question

Zajonc wrote an influential article in which he posited a theoretical explanation for the social facilitation effect. Elegantly simple, this explanation included two steps:

answer

the presence of others causes arousal, and arousal makes it easier to do simple things and harder to do difficult or new things

question

Which is the proper order of the process in Zajonc's explanation for social facilitation?

answer

presence of others>arousal>perform dominant response

question

When your roommate enters the room while youre typing an email, it can make you uncomfortable. The roommate isn't judging you, but you may still feel uncomfortable, according to Zajonc, because the roommate's more presence is

answer

arousing

question

Sometimes famous performers have horrible final rehearsals in empty auditoriums prior the a big performance, yet they end up having wonderful performances in front of audiences, Why would the presence of others increase performance on a well rehearsed task, such as musical performance?

answer

they are aroused

question

According to your authors, there are three theories that can explain the role of arousal in social facilitation which of the following best represents the three theories?

answer

Others make us alert, apprehension, and being evaluated; and others are distracting

question

Assume that you are playing pool a t the student union when several of your buddies surround the table you play. If you are ____ player, you would _____ because of the arousing effects of their presence.

answer

an excellent; make most of your shots

question

Which of the following explanations for social facilitation applies to humans but not to roaches? Humans are

answer

aroused the prospect of evaluation

question

One explanation for social facilitation focuses on the role of avaluation apprehension the anxiety associated with behing judged by others - in creating a state of arousal in people. What is the weakness of this explanation?

answer

Evaluation apprehension is probably not an important issue to roaches.

question

Baron has found that flashing lights can cause the same social facilitation effects as the presence of other people. These findings support the idea that ____ is the source of arousal that enhances performance on simple tasks.

answer

distraction

question

The evaluation apprehension explanation for the source of arousal that produces social facilitation posits that ____ leads to increased arousal and thus to enhanced performance in simple tasks.

answer

the presence of others who might judge us

question

Presently, there are three main ideas as to why the presence of others leads to greater arousal. Which of the following is NOT one of the three explanations? the presence of others

answer

causes us to become emotional

question

One reason why the presence of others is arousing is that it can be ______, which is a very cognitive explanation as to why people tend to perform worse at more difficult tasks in the presence of others.

answer

distracting

question

Social ____ refers to the tendency of people to do worse on simple tasks and better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and when their individual performance cannot be evaluated.

answer

loafing

question

The resident assistant of a campus residence hall notices that when a team of five students is assigned to clean the common room, the room is not as well cleaned as when only one student is assigned to clean it. What phenomenon does this example illustrate?

answer

social loafing

question

Which of the following individuals is most likely to engage in social loafing?

answer

Time, who washes a car with his friends

question

Social loafing is likely to impair performance ______ and to enhance performance ____

answer

on simple talks; on complex tasks

question

Group or team learning activities are becoming more common in the university setting. That is, professors often assign students to work in groups. Given what you know about social loafing, what advice would you give a professor who is considering using group learning activities?

answer

for simple assignments, the groups will likely do worse than you would expect from individuals

question

One reason why people may engage in social loafing in groups is that they feel

answer

less noticeable

question

When a crowd of people clap or cheer, it is difficult to tell just how load each individual is applauding or cheering. If people tend to clap louder when they are all alone than when they are in a crowd, they are probably engaging in

answer

social loafing.

question

Researches Karau reviewed more than 150 studies on social loafing, and found that they tendency to loaf is stronger in men than in women. Why is this true according to the work by Eagly 1987 and Wood?

answer

Women are higher in relational interdependence than men

question

Many Asian cultures are collectivistic; that is, they tend to place a greater emphasis on the welfare of the group than on the individual. Conversly western cultures tend to stress individual performance more than that of the group. A reasonably hypothesis would be that the social loafing effect is

answer

Stronger in western cultures

question

All things being equalm ____ from _____ cultures would be most likely to engage in social loafing.

answer

men; western

question

Professor smith has long used group projects in her courses. Dr Smith finds that the group projects are of considerably lower quality. What might you conclude given the work of Karau and Williams?

answer

Professor smith used to teach at a womens college, but now is teachings at a men's college

question

According to the text, which of the following factors can help to predict how likely a person is to a social loaf?

answer

gender and culture

question

You are a project manager at your company, and you must choose the last member of your team. Which of the following people would be the least likely to social loaf?

answer

Tran, a man from Vietnam

question

Both social facilitation and social loafing are examples of the influence that the presence of others has on our behaviors. These phenomena differ, however, in that presence of others ________ in social facilitation situations and ________ in social loafing situations.

answer

increases arousal; decreases arousal

question

You are a member of a group of five people whose task it is to address and stuff 1,000 envelopes for mailing. Research on ________ suggests that it would be better to give each person 200 envelopes to address alone, whereas research on ________ suggests that it would be better to have everyone work on the task together in the same room.

answer

social loafing; social facilitation

question

In order to predict whether the presence of others will help or hinder performance, one needs two pieces of information: whether ________ and whether ________.

answer

individual performance can be evaluated; the task is simple or complex

question

Complete the analogy. Social facilitation is to ________ as social loafing is to ________.

answer

relaxing; not being evaluated

question

________ refers to the loosening of normal behavioral constraints when people are in a crowd, leading to increases in impulsive and deviant acts.

answer

Deindividuation

question

Deindividuation is a feeling of anonymity that often results in

answer

impulsive, deviant acts.

question

Research on deindividuation suggests that when people are part of a crowd, they become

answer

more likely to act in an impulsive and deviant manner.

question

What do deindividuation and social loafing have in common? In both,

answer

individuals' actions are not identifiable.

question

Consider the following destructive acts: soccer fans bludgeoning one another, young people throwing rocks at police officers, and Klansmen lynching African Americans. All of these are examples of the dangerous effects of

answer

deindividuation.

question

Mullen's (1986) analysis of newspaper accounts revealed that the larger the lynch mob, the more savagely the mobs murdered their victims; Watson's (1973) cross-cultural study revealed that warriors wearing face or body paint were more likely to torture or kill captives than were warriors who wore no such "war paint." These findings suggest that one reason why mobs often commit heinous acts is that the individuals involved

answer

feel anonymous and thus less accountable for their actions.

question

For Halloween, Jeff wears a sheet and goes to a party as a ghost. How is this costume likely to influence his behavior? He will

answer

feel less personally accountable for his behavior.

question

Based on what the authors of your text state about the effects of deindividuation, which of the following people would be the most likely to shoplift?

answer

Diana, who is wandering through a crowded marketplace

question

There is a powerful scene in the classic film, To Kill a Mockingbird; Atticus Finch, a small town lawyer, is on the courthouse steps standing guard over Tom Robinson, an African-American prisoner whom he is defending. A mob of townspeople and local farmers approaches the courthouse, demanding that Atticus turn over Robinson; they are intent on administering their own form of vigilante justice. Suddenly, Atticus's young daughter Scout steps forward. She doesn't understand what's about to happen, and begins to address people in the crowd, "Hey, Mr. Cunningham. How's your boy? I like Walter, but I haven't seen him in awhile." As Scout innocently addresses a number of individuals in the crowd, they begin to leave one by one, until the whole lynch mob is disbanded. Scout's behavior disrupts the ________ that might have led to a lynching.

answer

deindividuation

question

Compared to individuals deciding alone, members of groups tend to make decisions that are

answer

more extreme.

question

According to the authors of your text, women in leadership positions are in a double bind: If they conform to social expectations about how to behave and are warm and communal, they may be seen as having low leadership potential; then, when they are given the opportunity to lead and they ________, they are perceived negatively.

answer

act in agentic, assertive ways

question

An ambitious study of leadership in 62 countries determined that

answer

different traits for leaders are preferred in different cultures.

question

The text described a recent situation in which novelist Stephen King began publishing a novel called The Plant in installments over the Internet, asking readers to pay $1 per installment. He indicated that if at least 75 percent of the people who downloaded the novel paid the fee, he would keep writing and posting new installments, but if fewer than 75 percent paid the fee, he would stop writing and people would never get the rest of the novel. King posed a ________ dilemma for his readers.

answer

social

question

A social dilemma is defined as a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will ________ if ________.

answer

have harmful effects on everyone; chosen by most people

question

The key to success in the "prisoner's dilemma" game is to

answer

trust one's partner.

question

The "prisoner's dilemma" game is an excellent vehicle for studying social conflicts in the laboratory because

answer

the rules of the game pit self-interest against looking out for someone else's interest.

question

You are playing a "game" against another person, and you have to choose an option without knowing what your partner will choose. In this instance, you must choose how much money you will choose to contribute to a common pot versus keep in your own account when having X amount in the common pot would bring a benefit to you both. The situation you are in is known as a

answer

prisoner's dilemma.

question

Under certain conditions, people will choose the cooperative option when playing the "prisoner's dilemma" game. For example, when a player ________, that player will be more likely to play cooperatively.

answer

expects to interact with his or her partner in the future

question

When it comes to social dilemmas such as the "prisoner's dilemma" game, the tit-for-tat strategy

answer

is a means of increasing cooperation.

question

Experimental research on social conflicts has shown that the greatest amount of cooperation occurs when

answer

participants use a "tit-for-tat" strategy.

question

As revealed in the pattern of responses above, Wilma is probably using a ________ strategy.

answer

tit-for-tat

question

Recall that the "trucking" game (Deutsch & Krauss, 1960, 1962) puts participants in a conflict situation. Each participant wants to get his or her truck to the destination as quickly as possible. Deutsch and Krauss introduced a novel twist; they sometimes gave one participant a gate with which to threaten an opponent; other times, they gave both participants such a gate, and still other times, neither participant had a gate with which to threaten his or her opponent. What happened?

answer

When both participants could wield threats, both sides lost money.

question

In the early "trucking" game studies by Deutsch and Krauss (1960, 1962), it was found that allowing the competing participants to communicate during the game

answer

did not foster trust and cooperation.

question

Deutsch and Krauss (1960, 1962) found that cooperation between adversaries is most likely to occur when

answer

neither side is able to make a threat.

question

Why did allowing (and even requiring) participants to communicate when they played the "trucking" game (Deutsch & Krauss, 1962) fail to engender trust and cooperation? Participants

answer

used communication primarily as means of threatening their opponents.

question

A group of five students are sharing a house. All of the students like to take long, hot showers in the morning, but when they do, there is not enough hot water for their housemates. Which of the following will be LEAST successful in getting the students to take shorter showers?

answer

Negotiate hot water use online via an instant messenger.

question

According to Sigmund Freud, _____________ is an inevitable by-product of civilization.

answer

conflict

question

Based on work on deindividuation, in which context is Janine most likely to make offensive comments towards Harry, with whom she is angry?

answer

when she is on an Internet chatroom anonymously

question

In person, Paul is very mild-mannered and kind. However, his posts in anonymous chatrooms are sometimes explicit and offensive in nature. Why would this be the case?

answer

Anonymity leads to a sense of deindividuation.

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