Ethics – Mid-Term – Flashcards
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VAILDITY
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An argument is valid if the conclusion logically [Necessarily] follows from the premises, regardless of truth. How it fits together. [characteristic of an observation that makes it accurate to draw info from it.] Logically, IT HAS NO TRUTH.
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SOUNDNESS
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An argument is sound if and only if it has both a valid structure and true premises. For Soundness, we need /require validity, a valid structure + True premises = a True Conclusion. [feature of deductive arguments such that, in those that have it, the premises are true and the conclusion genuinely follows from the premises; the conclusion is true by logical necessity.]
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MOTIVE-ACTION-CONSEQUENCE
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Ethical theories that emphasize one or more of these parts of ethical behavior [motive-action-consequence]. Utilitarianism is concerned with consequence. Kantianism is concerned with motive and action.
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AUTONOMY
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Self-determnation; lit. Self-Law. Freedom to make moral choices. The right to choose.
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ETHICAL RELATIVISM is...
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The Normative claim that what a culture approves of or practices is good for that culture. The position that there exists no absolute, object moral truth. There is no objective standard or right and wrong, even in principle. There are only views of what is right and wrong.
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ETHICAL RELATIVISM STATES...
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that standards of morality are relative to a particular culture of society. [What's right for me and my society may be wrong for another.]
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REASONS GIVEN IN SUPPORT OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM include...
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Disagreement over morality, Difficulty in determining moral truths and Situational difference.
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DIFFERENCES with ACCEPTING ETHICAL RELATIVISM are...
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We would have to accept offense, even violent actins if another culture approves of them. and We could only say that our culture disapproves of them but not that an actin is wrong absolutely or universally.
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ULITARIANISM [Consequentialist Ethical Theory]
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It determines the moral utility usefulness -- it's an absolute principal to utilitarianism. Concerned with whether or not an action will result with the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number. [A decision focused on outcome or consequences that emphasizes the greatest good for the greatest number]
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WHO ARE THE FOUNDERS OF UTILITARIANISM?
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Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
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Jeremy Bentham as one of the founders of Utilitarianism says...
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only the quantity of pleasure matters.
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John Stuart Mill as one of the founders of Utilitarianism was...
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a student of Bentham -- very progressive theory that involved everyone. Mill says that the quality of pleasure shoudl be considered.
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Utilitarianism is concerned with....
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Consequence
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Kantianism is concerned with...
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Motive and Action
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ACT vs RULE UTILITARIANISM
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ACT UTILITARIANISM states that we ought to consider the consequences of each act SEPARATELY. [Consider the consequences of some particular act such as keeping or breaking one's promise] RULE UTILITARIANISM states that we ought to consider the consequences of the act performed as a GENERAL PRACTICE. [Consider the consequences of some practice or rule of behavior--for example, the practice of promise keeping or promise breaking.]
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ACT UTILITARIANISM...
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looks at each situation individually in trying to determine an action which will provide best results
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RULE UTILITARIANISM...
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attempts to formulate some rules that when adhered to will most often result in maximizing pleasure for greatest amount of people.
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PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY is...
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Maximizing happiness [pleasure] for greatest amount of people, also minimizing pain. "The end justifies the mean".
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CONSEQUENTIALISM
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Utilitarianism that is concerned primarily with the consequences [results] of an action, not the motive or act itself.
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KANTIANISM (Deontological Ethical Theory)
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A theory that stresses the importance of the motive of doing one's duty as a determining factor in assessing the moral value of the actions. Motive is more important than outcome. MOTIVE and ACTION itself.
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Immanuel Kant
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was concerned with Motive and Action, not consequences. Kant says that there are things one must never do even if they would result in some good [Lying, for example]. Kant also stated that One must act out of Duty [because something is right] and according[ly] the duty [do the right thing]. Prussian Philosopher who argued that if serious thinkers were granted freedom to exercise their reason in print, enlightenment would surely follow. Greatest German philosopher of Enlightenment-
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VIRTURE
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The act itself
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Was Immanuel Kant a Consequentialist or Rationalist?
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Kant was a Rationalist.
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DEONTOLOGY
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Obligations, duties. The theory or study of moral obligation. Deon means duty.
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MAXIM means...
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rules. Based on the principle of utilizatarianism [as in usefulness].
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HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES
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are things one should do to achieve some personal end or goal-situation specific. Not something that should be required of all. Kant; conditional and goal based, based on what you want ex- cook book, driving directions
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CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE is..
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moral obligation, should be required universally [you should only do those things that you can get everyone else to do]. A concept developed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant as an ethical guideline for behavior. In deciding whether an action is right or wrong, or desirable or undesirable, a person should evaluate the action in terms of what would happen if everybody else in the same situation, or category, acted the same way.
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1ST FORM OF Categorical Imperative is..
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act only on that maxim (rule) that you would will to be universal law. This must not lead to rational contradiction. One cannot will to lie and also will that lying be impossible.
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2ND FORM OF Categorical Imperative is...
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Treat others and yourself AS ENDS, not as mere means [a tool]. Persons have innate dignity and autonomy; they should not be treated simply as tools for achieving some goal.
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Regarding Natural Law, ARISTOTLE.....
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wrote heavily on natural law after observing order and purpose in the natural world.
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Regarding Natural Law, ST. PAUL.....
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alludes to natural law in his Epistle to the Romans.
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Regarding Natural Law, ST. THOMAS AQUINAS.....
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as medieval Catholic theologian, he thoroughly developed Christian natural law theory.
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Aristotle, St. Paul and St. Thomas Aquinas...
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All adhered to/developed natural law theory in some way. The idea is that in nature, everything has an order.
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NATURAL LAW THEORY states..
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that because of an inherent order or design to all things, each thing has a purpose [telos--purpose or goal]. Humans as rational animals are ordered/designed so to flourish or achieve eudaimonia [good spirit, flourishing]. Some behaviors are in accord with natural law, that is they contribute to human excellence and harmony, other behavior are contrary to it and impede human flourishing.
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NATURAL LAW is...
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same order to the universe -- connected to virture ethics
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VIRTURE ETHICS
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Focuses on the traits of character or dispositions that promote the human good.
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NATURAL RIGHTS
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are those rights humanperhaps possess by virture of being human or because they were created by GOD--things like life, liberty, et al. Rights that are necessary for humans to function well. Declaration of Independence-type language. Depends on a type of conceptualization.
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Regarding Virtue Ethics, Plato/Aristotle
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thoroughly discussed the virtues.
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What are VIRTUES?
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Virtures are those moral habits which when practiced or honed with bringing a human into accordance with the natural law and allow him to achieve flourishing.
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Regarding Virtue...
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We are not born with it but we are borned to develop it.
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ARETE are
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virtues, excellence/noble behaviors.
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The VIRTUES aim...
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toward human flourishing--teleology [telos means goal, end].
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So...VIRTUE ETHICAL THEORY is..
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a teleological ethical theory.
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What does EUDAIMONIA mean?
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It means good spirit, happiness, flourishing.
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What is THE GOLDEN MEAN?
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Balance between excess or deficit of behavior, for example: courage is a balance [mean] between rash behavior and cowardice. Not all virtues are a mean between two extremes. One cannot hav too much mercy or theological charity, for example.
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What is EUTHANASIA [EU-THANATOS]?
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Allowing or bringing about someone's death. Actively hastening death. Euthanasia means "good death".
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PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
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Allowing a person to die by withholding or withdrawing measures to maintain life. The deliberate disconnection of life support equipment, or cessation of any life sustaining medical procedure, permitting the natural death of the patient
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ACTIVE EUTHANASIA
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A situation in which someone takes action to bring about another person's death, with the intention of ending that person's suffering. Occurs when a physician or other individual (at patient's request) hastens a patient's death by active mean, such as by administering a fatal dose of a drug.
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NON-VOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA
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Killing someone or letting someone die who did not express his desire either to die or remain alive. Ending someone's life painlessly when they are unable to ask, but you have good reason for thinking they would want you to do so e.g switching off a life support machine
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INVOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA
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The act of ending a terminal patient's life by medical means without his permission. Patient does not request their own death- someone else decides for them that they are better off dead. Usually when a patient is unable to communicate (coma) or unable to understand their conditions.
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VOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA
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Doctors or others act directly, at a patient's request, to end suffering before a natural end to life. The act of ending a dying patient's life by medical means with his or her permission.
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The two most common arguments for ABORTION are...
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The Fetus is not a human being It is morally acceptable to kill innocent humans The government should not prevent the killing of innocent people
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VIOLINIST ARGUMENT [Judith Jarvis Thompson]
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Let's imagine that the fetus is a real human being. Pushes against our notion of consent You would neverless be the morally decent thing to do
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PERSONHOOD and ABSOLUTE vs. LIMITED RIGHTS TO LIFE
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Method I: Physical characteristics such as heart beat, brain activity Method II: Being Human, Being Like Human Beings, Potentiality, Actuality and Evolving Value
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Moral Virtues
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The strengths or habits that help us make better decisions to live as children of God and followers of Christ; prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance; also known as the cardinal virtues. Also [Wisdom, Moderation, Courage, Faith, Hope and Love for church]. Moral Virtues must be practiced. [Aristotle]
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METAETHICS [Meta: meaning beyond]
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Predominated English-speaking universities from mid-1930s until recently. In metaethics, we would analyze the meaning of ethical language. [instead of asking whether the death penalty is morally justified, we would ask what we meant in calling something 'morally justified' or 'good', or 'right'].
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DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
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The idea is that Certain actions are right because they are what GOD wills for us.
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Plato's dialogue EUTHYPHRO...
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examines the Divine Command Theory view. Plato asks whether things are good because they are approved by the gods or whether the gods approve of them because they are good.
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TO SAY THAT ACTIONS ARE GOOD JUST BECAUSE THEY ARE WILLED OR APPROVED BY THE gods OR GOD .....
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seems to make morality arbitrary.
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MORAL JUDGMENTS...
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are evaluative because they "place a value", negative or positive, on some action or practice [such as capital punishment]
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Norms is the same as
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Standards
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MORALLY PERMISSIBLE
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Permissible to do but not obligated to do.
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Opposite of Virtuous is...
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Vicious
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One can recoginze the REASONS in an argument by their introduction through key words such as...
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since, because, and given that.
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The Conclusion contains words such as ...
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thus and therefore
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PREMISES are..
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the reasons suporting the conclusion
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In a sound agrument, the premises are...
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true and the conclusion follows from them. A Sound Argument has a valid form in the the conclusion actually follows from the premises, and the premises or reasons given for the conclusion are true.
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Value Assumptions or Elements...
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Beliefs about how the world should be, reflect an individuals viewpoint on which values are most important to consider in relation to an issue. Also, beliefs about what is good and important that form the basis of opinions on issues.
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CONCEPTUAL MATTERS...
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are those that relate to the meaning of terms or concepts.
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FACTUAL ASSERTIONS
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When we want to know whether something is actually true.
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ETHICAL ARGUMENTS RELY ON ...
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a sound argument, value assumptions, conceptual matters, arguments from analogy, and factual assertions.
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AD HOMINEM FALLACY
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Looking at the source of the opinion rather than the reasons given for it.
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BEGGING THE QUESTION or ARGUING IN A CIRCLE...
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the conclusion is used to support itself.
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ARGUMENTS FROM ANALOGY
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One compares familiar examples with the issue being disputed.
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Ethical Theory, Ethical Principle, Ethical Judgment can be believed from...
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the bottom up [ethical judgment, principle and theory] or, from the top down [ethical theory, principle an jugment]
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What are the four types of Moral Theories?
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Utilitarianism, Kant's moral theory, natural law and virtue ethics.
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Consequentialist or sometimes Teleological Moral Theories
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Those theories that base moral jdgments on consequences.
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TELOS [The Greek root from Teleological] means...
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"goal" or "end".
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NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST or DEONTOLOGICAL THEORIES
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Those theories that hold that actions can be right or wrong regardless of their consequences.
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GREEK ROOT DEON [of the word Deontological] means
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"duty"
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UTILITARIANISM
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Doctrine that the useful is the good [Ex. especially as elaborated by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill; the aim was said to be the greatest happiness for the greatest number]
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Regarding whether or not Ethics can be taught, the Greek philosopher PLATO thought...
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that Ethics COULD be taught. Plato wrote, "All evil is ignorance." In other words the only reason we do what is wrong is because we do not know or believe it is wrong. If we come to believe that something is right, however, it should then follow that we will necessarily do it.
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RELATIVE to individuals or societies mean...
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that they are a function of, or dependent on, what those individuals or societies do, in fact, believe.
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The two forms of Ethical Relativism are ..
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Personal or Individual Ethical Relativism [ethical judgments and beliefs are the expressins of the moral outlook and attitudes of individual persons]. AND Social or Cultural Ethical Relativism [this holds that ethical values vary from society to society and that the basis for moral judgments lies in these social or cultural views]
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REASONS FOR SUPPORTING ETHICAL RELATIVISM includes...
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1. The existence of Moral Diversity among people and cultures. 2. Great difficulty we often have in knowing what is the Morally Right Thing to believe or do. 3. People and Situations, cultures and times differ in signficant ways.
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SKEPTICISM
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The view that it is difficult, if not impossible, to know something.
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SUBJECTIVISM
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We only see things from our own perspective and thus can never know things.
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ABSOLUTISM
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The view that moral rules or principles have no exceptions and context-independent.
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SOCIAL OR CULTURAL RELATIVIST
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The view that moral values are simply a reflection of society's views.
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INDIVIDUAL RELATIVIST
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The view that I should turn within and consult my moral feelings in order to solve a personal moral problem.
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Is RELATVISM a more tolerant position than OBJECTIVISM?
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YES.
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TWO issues discussed by contemporary moral philosophers are...
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Moral Realism [the issue of moral value] and MORAL PLURALISM [the problem of deciding between plural goods]
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REALISM
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The view that there exists a realit independent of those who know it.
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MORAL RELATIVISM
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The idea that all moral judgments are inherently subjective and therefore not valid for anybody but oneself; the belief that no single opinion on morality is any better than another.
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The classicial formulation of utilitarian moral theory is found in the writings of...
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Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
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Jeremy Bentham [1748-1832]
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English born. Leader of a radical movement for social and legal reform (prisons) based on utilitarian principles. His primary published work was INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPALS OF MORALS AND LEGISLATION (1789). He believed that there are not 2 sets of principles, one for personal morality and another for social morality. British theorist and philosopher who proposed utilitarianism, the principle that governments should operate on the basis of utility, or the greatest good for the greatest number.
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John Stuart Mill [1806-1873]
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British philosopher who published On Liberty (1859), advocating individual rights against government intrusion, and The Subjection of Women (1869), on the cause of women's rights. Poor Law of 1834 Legislation that restricted the number of poverty-stricken eligible for aid. Devoted follower of Bentham's philosophy. The basic ideas of utilitarian moral theory are summarized in his short work, UTILITARIANISM, where he sought to dispel misconceptins that morality had nothing to do with usefulness or utility or that it was opposed to pleasure.
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What did Mill write on Utilitarianism?
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"All the grand sources of human suffering are in a great degree, many of them almost entirely conquerable by human care and effort."
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Were Bentham and Mill Optimists?
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Yes. They believed that human wisdom and science would improve the lot of humanity.
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Give and explain the basic idea of the principle of utility or the greatest happiness principle.
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This principle has several formulations in Bentham and Mill as well as in utilitarianism after them. The two simplified formulations are: A. - The morally best (or better) alternative is that this produces the greatest (or greater) net utility, where utility is defined in terms of happiness or pleasure. B - We ought to do that which produces the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people.
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What does it mean to speak of utilitarianism as a consequentialist moral theory? As a teleological moral theory?
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To speak of utilitarianism as a consequentialist moral theory means Motive + Act = Consequences. To speak of utilitarianism as a teleological moral theory means it stresses the end or goal of actions.
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What is the difference between intrinsic and instrumental good? Give examples of each.
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Intrinsic Goods are things that are only good in themselves. Examples: Happiness and Pleasure Instrumental Goods are things that are useful for attaining the goals of happiness and pleasure. Examples: fame, fortune, education, and freedom.
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Is utilitarianism a hedonist moral theory? Why or why not?
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Hedonism is a classical theory that is closer to utilitarianism. It is from the Greek word 'hedon' which means pleasure or Epicureanism (named after Epicurus who held that the good life was the pleasant life. For him, this meant avoiding distress and desires for things beyond one's basic needs. Bodily pleasure and mental delight and peace were the goods to be sought in life.
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What is Mill's argument for the difference in value between intellectual and sensual pleasures?
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Mill's arguments for the difference in value between intellectual and sensual pleasures is: a) Mill believed that the quality of the pleasure should also count. Some pleasures are intrinsically better than others. b) Intellectual pleasures are more valuable in themselves than purely sensual pleasures. Although Mill did not specify how much more valuable, he believed this should be factored into the calculation of the "greatest amount of happiness".
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Utilitarianism is part of what tradition in philosophy?
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Empiricist Tradition.
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The basic moral principle of Utilitarianism is called...
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The Principle of Utility or Greatest Happiness Principle.
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According to utiliitarian moral theory..
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when we evaluate human acts or practices, we consider neither the nattrue of the acts or practices nor the motive for which people do what they do.
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With regard to utilitarianism, as Mill puts it,...
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"He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether hismotive be duty of the hope of being paid for his trouble". It is the result of one's action--that a life is saved--that matters morally.
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According to utilitarianism:
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we ought to decide which actin or practice is best by considering the likely or actual consequences of each alternative.
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Classical Utilitarianism is...
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a pleasure or happiness theory.
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Regarding happiness and pleasure, utilitarians also have believed that...
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pleasure or happiness is the good to be produced. As Bentham puts it, "Nature has placed mankind under the goverance of two sovereign masters, 'pain and pleasure'. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do."
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What are Instrumental Goods?
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In philosophical terms, instrumental goods are useful for attaining the goals of happiness and pleasure. [Happiness and Pleasure are the only intrinsic goods-- the only things good in themselves]
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What are Intrinsic Goods?
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Things that are good in themselves. [happiness, pleasure]
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According to the 'greatest happiness or utility principle', ...
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we must measure, count, and compare the pleasurable experiences likely to be produced by various alternative actions in order to know which is best.
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Is Utilitarianism an Egoistic Theory?
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No, it is not.
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Some philosophers have called utilitarianism 'universalistic' because...
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it is the happiness of pleasure of all who are affected by an action or practice that is to be considered. We are not just to consider our own good, as in egoism, nor just the good of others, as in altruism.
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Sacrifice may be good, but...
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not in itself.
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SACRIFICE, as Mill puts it...
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A sacrifice which does not increase or tend to increase th sum total of happiness, [utilitiarianism] considers as wasted.
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In what statement are Bentham & Mill are in agreement?
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That the more pleasure or happiness, the better.
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According to Behtham, what ONLY thing should one consider pertaining to pleasure or happiness?
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That we ought to consider only the quantity or pleasure or happiness brought about by various acts. [how much pleasure, to how many people, how intense it is, how long-lasting; how fruitful, and how likely the desired outcome will occur.
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According to Mill, what thing should one consider in addition to Bentham's statement regarding the quantity of pleasure or happiness?
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Mill believed that the QUALITY of the pleasure should also count.
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Mill attempts to prove or show that...
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intellectual pleasures are better than sensual ones.
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What does mean by the phrase "direction points along the way"?
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Using handy 'rules of thumb' to help one determne whether keeping or breaking a promise is more likely to result in the better consequences.
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Utilitarianism, ass a Consequentialist Moral Theory, holds:
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that it is the consequences or ends of our actions that determine wheth particular means to them are justified.
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One of the best ways to evaluate a moral theory is...
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to examine carefully the reasons that are given to support it.
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What is David Hume known as?
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The Moral Philosopher.
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What is Mill's argument in the "Proof" that the principle of utility is the correct moral principle?
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Mill's argument is: Just as the only way in which we know that something is visible is its being seen, and the only way we can show that something is audible is if it can be heard, so also the only roof that we have that something is desirable is its being desired.
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Since Mill's writings, according to the Ethics book, what two other forms of utilitarianism have also developed?
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Preference Utilitarianism and Cost-Benefit Analysis.
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What is Preference Utilitarianism?
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The action that is best is the one that satisfies the most preferences, either in themselves or according to their strength or their order of importance.
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What is Cost-Benefit Analysis?
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The premise that one policy is better than another if it is the least costly compared with the benefits expected. It is a measure of efficiency. Often, the measure is money.
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What is "Telos"?
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Goal or Purpose
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IMMANUEL KANT
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Most important philosopher in the last 3 centuries. Well known for ethical theories. Kant is product of modern world. German Prussian. Kant thinks that the most important thing one can do is duty (doing the right thing for the right reasons). --Theories on ethics are deontological (duty)--any ethical system that is based on duty. --Very much concerned with rationality of humans. [If you are ratinal, ou have autonomy [rational automony Greatest German philospher; seperates science and moratlity into separate branches of knowledge; idea of Categorical Imperative, intuitive instincts placed by God in man
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What are the 2 types of "Should / Ought" Imperative statements?
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1. Hypothetical Imperative [if I want a good grade in class, I should come to class] 2. Categorical Imperative [Kant's basic moral principle by which we determine what we ought and ought not to do.
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Is Moral Obligation Categorical?
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Yes.
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What are the two types of Categorical Imperative.
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1. The First Form which states: "Act only on that maxim that you can will as universal lay. AND 2. The Second Form: Always treat humanity, whether in your own perosn or that of another, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end.
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What are Hypothetical "oughts"?
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Goals we each have as individuals.
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What are Moral "oughts"?
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Oughts that stem from the ways in which we are alike as persons, for only persons ae subject to moraity.
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Moral oughts are thus, in Kant's terminology...
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are unconditional or necessary
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What does Kant not believe regarding morality?
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That morality is a function of producing good consequences. We may do what has good results, but if we do so for the wrong motive, then that act has not moral worth.
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In Kant terms, we must not only act 'out of duty' [having the right motive]...
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but also 'according to duty' or 'as duty requires' [do what is right].
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What is the Categorical Imperative?
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Kant's statement of the basic moral principle by which we determine what we ought and ought not to do.
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In the following statement: [Thus, I would consider the maxim, "Whenever I am in some difficulty that I can get out of only by making a lying or false promise, I will do so] to know whether this would be morally acceptable, it must pass the test of ...
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the Categorical Imperative.
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What does Kant rely on regarding rules of nature?
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Kant relies on his views about nature as a system of everything that we experience because it is organized according to laws.
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According to Kant, what should we ask ourselves regarding whether we should take some action?
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We ought always to ask whether some action we are contemplating could become a univeral law of nature. The effect of this version is to stress the universality and rationality of morality, for nature necessarily operates accordingly to coherent laws.
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Regarding Autonomy, we are to ask...
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whether we could consider ourselves as the author because we are both subject to the moral law and its author because it flows from our own nature as a rational being.
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What does Kant describes as a "Kingdom of Ends" [community of rational persons]?
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A kingdom in which all persons are authors as well as subjects of the moral law.
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The central 'appealing' aspects of Kant's Moral Philosophy are...
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fairness, consistency, and treating persons as autonomous and morally equal beings.
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Kant's view on the Nature of Moral Obligation is.
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that moral obligatin is real and strictly binding.
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According to Kant, how do we generally think of moral obligations?
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If there is anything that we morally ought to do, then we simply ought to do it.
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What is Duty?
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Whatever is the right thing to do.
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What is Absolutism?
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Usually refers to a morality that cosists in a set of exceptionless rules.
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The one exceptionless rule to Kant's philosophy given in the categorical imperative is...
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We are Never Permitted to do what we cannot will as a universal law or what violates the requirement to treat persons as persons.
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A positive feature of Kant's moral theory is its emphasis on...
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the moral equalilty of all persons which is implied in his view about the nature of moral obligation as universally binding.
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Another positive feature of Kant's moral philosophy is...
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its spririt of impartiality. For an action to be morally ermissible, we shoud be able to will it for all. [race, gender, age, and talents].
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Perfect or Necessary Duties (Kant)
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Duties that are absolute. We an and should absolutely refrain from making false or lying promises.
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Imperfect or Meritorious Duties (Kant)
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are the same as Ethical Egoism in that it is the view that we may rightly seek only our own interest and help others only to the extent that this also benefits us.
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PRIMA FACIE (W. D. Ross) is..
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conditional duties of loyalty and honesty.
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Regarding Prima Facie, according to W. D. Ross, we have to consider...
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which duty is the strongest--that is, which has the greater balance of rightness over wrongness. [In choosing honesty in some situatin, however, one does not negate or forget that one also has a duty to be loyal.
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W. D. Ross
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A contemporary philosopher of Kantian moral philosophies. Developed rules governing professional behavior based on professional duties.(Prima Facie).
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One of the most noted contemporary versions of Kant's moral philosophy is found in the politial philosophy of...
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John Rawls. In a THEORY OF JUSTICE, Rawls applies Kantian principles to issues of social justice. According to Rawls, 'justice is fairness'.
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The idea that there is a law more basic than civil laws in existence is...
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a moral law.
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What are the two tenets of natural law?
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1. The idea that the basic moral law can be known by human reason. AND 2. That we know what it requires by looking to human nature.
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According to the tenets of natural law, human rights...
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are those things that we can validly claim because they are essential for functioning well as human beings.
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NATURAL LAW
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INHERENT ORDER OF PURPOSE IN HUMAN LIFE. It is telelogical in it thinks that everything has Telos or Goal. A moral law written into nature. [The societal law is part of natural law]. A rule or body of rules of conduct inherent in human nature and essential to or binding upon human society. [ Arguments - abortion, homosexuality]
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EUDAIMONIA
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Truly Flourishing. [in Greek - good spirit. The 'daimonia' part of the word Eudaimonia means demon] Using all of our human capabilities. Often translated as happiness; term Aristotle used to refer to fully realized existence; state of being fully aware, vital, alert, full human potential.
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Natural Law is used by...
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Christians, Jews, Muslims...
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St. Thomas Aquinas
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Catholic Theologian. Lived in 5th Century. Develop much of Catholic moral Theology based on Natural Law. He believed that man was created by GOD. Major proponent of Scholasticism. New thoughts on the Nature of man and god and state. Synthesis of Christianity and Aristotle. Provided an ethical theory based on religion, Aquinas's natural law ethics is reported to be the basis for most medical ethics issues.
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Aristotle
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Studied Plato. Developed moral laws. The 1st to develop a complex ethical philosophy based on this view. Aristotle was more interested in the individual and the concrete manifestations of the forms.
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Saint Paul / Early Roman Period
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Writer of most of the New Testiment of the Bible.
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Does Moral Law stand above Societal Law?
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Yes
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Regarding criticizism, David Hume stated...
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You cannot get an "ought" from an "is". Just because you observe the ways things are, doesn't mean it shouldn't be.
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Regarding Natural Laws:
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Many Religions hold on to natural law. From Natural Law, you get a sense of Natural Rights--rights that come out of our nature.
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Telos means
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Goal / purpose
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JUS (meaning Justice) GENTIUM (gentile mean Roman people)
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Law of nations. Law of the people. Phrase used by early Roman people.
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TELEOLOGICAL VIEW
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View of Aristotle whereby there is an order in nature. I was as if natural beings such as plants and animals had a principleof order within them that directed them toward their goal--their mature final form.
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According to Aristotle regarding the Human Good...
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The good is that at which all things aim. We are to look at the purpose or end or goal of some actifity or being to see what is its good.
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According to Aristotle regarding Natural Beings...
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Natural beings come in kinds or species. From their species flow their essential characteristics and certain key tendencies or capacities.
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According to the Natural Law tradition from Aristotle on, human beings...
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also thought to be natural beings with a specific human nature. They have certain specific characteristics and abilities that they share as humans.
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According to the Natural Law Theory, for human beings to function well or flourish...
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they should perfect their human capabilities. If they do this, they will also be happy, for a being is happy to the extent that it is functioning well.
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Regarding the well being of humans, Aristotle believed...
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that the ultimate good of humans is happiness, blessedness, or prosperity - called Eudaimonia.
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Most virturous actions are a contrast between....
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two extremes. Faith, Hope & Love is not part of this.
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A Mean Action includes the pagen choices from Aristotle of...
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Wisdom, Temperance, Justice, Courage and Fortitude
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ACT
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Each thing separately / specifically
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RULE
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Looks at it generally, overall.
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VIRTUE ETHICS
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A moral philosophy that concentrates on the notion of virtue. It is an ethics whose goal is to determine what is essential to be a well-functioning or flourishing human being or person.
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Regarding Virtues, Aristotle ....
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talked a lot about the virtues. The Greek word for Virtue is ARETE - meaning excellence or the good about something. Excellent moral qualities. VIR means Man in Greek.
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Who was one of the earliest writers to ground morality in nature, and specifically human nature?
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Aristotle
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According to Aristotle, there are two basic types of excellence or virtues. They are:
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Intellectual and Moral Virtues.
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INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES are...
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excellences of mind, such as the ability to understand and reason and judge well. Aristotle said that these traints are learned from teachers.
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MORAL VIRTUES..
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dispose us to act well. Moral Virtues are not learned by being taught, but by repetition.
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Regarding Virtues, Aristotle is probably most well known for his position that...
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virtue is a MEAN between extremes. Thus, the virtue of courage is to be understood as a MEAN or MIDDLE between the two extremes.
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Phillippa Foot, a contemporary moral philospher, developed a type of NEONATURALISTIC VIRTUE ETHICS. She believes that ....
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the virtues are 'in some general way, beneficial. Human beings donot get on well without them. According to Foot, it is both ourselves and our community that benefit from our having certain virtues, just as having certain vices harms both ourselves and our communities.
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What is the difference between "whole brain death" and "persistent vegetative state"?
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Whole brain death is when someone has permanently lost all detectable brain function. Persistent vegetative state is when an individual has lost all cerebral cortex function, but has retained some good brain stem function.
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If a person has whole brain death, then what kind of euthanasia is possible? Explain
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No kind of euthanasia is possible because you cannot let some die who is already dead.
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What is the difference between active and passive euthanasia?
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Active euthanasia is using certain death-causing means to bring about or cause the death of a person. Doing something such as administering a lethal drug or using other means that cause the person's death. Passive euthanasia is withholding or withdrawing certain treatment and letting a patient die. Stopping (or not starting) some treatment, which allows the person to die. The person's condition causes his or her death.
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Where do advance directives such as living wills and durable powers of attorney fit into the distinction between voluntary and nonvoluntary euthanasia?
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Since voluntary euthanasia is about the individual whose life is at issue making decisions about what is to be or not be done, the living will and/or durable powers of attorney helps ensure that the patient's wishes are carried out in the event they are unable to speak for themselves. The durable power of attorney goes a step further in allowing the patient to appoint someone who will know what they want to have done under certain conditions it the patient is dying.
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What is the difference between ordinary and extraordinary measures of life support? If some measure of life support were rather common and inexpensive, would this necessarily make it an ordinary means of life support? Explain
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Ordinary measures of life support - measures or treatments with reasonable hope of benefit, or the benefits outweigh the burdens to the patient. Extraordinary measures of life support measures or treatments with no reasonable hope of benefit, or the burdens outweigh the benefits to the patient. In some cases, the common and inexpensive measures of life support may not necessarily make it an ordinary means of life support because the common / inexpensive measure may effectively treat one person's condition, but another person may die shortly even if the measure were used, such as a blood transfusion.
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Give a utilitarian argument for abortion. Give one against abortion. Are these act or rule utilitarian arguments?
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A utilitarian argument for abortion could be that for a woman to continue the pregnancy, bad consequences such as the loss of a job or the burden of caring for the child under particular circumstances. An argument against abortion could be in knowing that the pregnancy will result in having a child and the joy that comes from someone who is a part of you is dependent on you for the care and nurturing of the child. Both are "act utilitarian arguments" in that each case or action stands on its own. Its own consequences determine whether it is good or bad, better or worse than other alternatives and that the choice made by the woman would be best choice for her, given the circumstances and responsibilities she has "decided" to accept.
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Describe how Thomson uses the violinist analogy to make an argument about the moral permissibility of abortion?
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I believe that Thomason uses the violinist analogy in making the argument that although it would be generous for a woman to save the life of the fetus, she is not obligated to do so. Thomason's point is that no one has a right to use a woman's body even to save her own life unless she gave that person that right. Women are persons and have a right to bodily integrity as do other people, and that as people they ought not to be used against their will for whatever purposes by others, even noble purposes such as the nurturing of children.
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Use Method I to make one argument for and one against abortion.
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An argument for the justification of an abortion based on Method I - Detectable Brain Waves is at six to eight weeks, the brain is quite simple; only much later do those parts develop that are the basis of conscious function. At earlier stages, the brain is arguably not that different from other animal brains in structure or function. An argument for justification of not having an abortion based on Method I - Detectable Brain Waves is the human brain is the focus of consciousness, language, and communication, and it is what makes use crucially different from other animals. Why should we not use the beginning of brain function as the beginning of an individual's life? Brain activity can be detected between the sixth and eighth weeks of fetal development.
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Which of the following positions under Method II does each statement exemplify?
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a. Because this fetus has all the potential to develop the abilities of a person, it has all the rights of a person. (Potentiality) b. Only when a being can think and communicate does it have full moral status. Because a fetus does not have these abilities, it has neither moral rights nor claims. (Being Like Human Beings) c. If it is a human being, then it has full moral status and rights. (Being Human) d. Its ability to feel pain gives a being full moral status. The fetus has this beginning in the fifth or sixth month, and so abortion is not morally justifiable beyond that stage. (Actuality) e. Early term fetuses do not have as much moral significance as later-term fetuses because their potential is not as well developed as later. (Evolving Value)
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