Test 3 Study Guide – Flashcards
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Ivan P. Pavlov
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classical conditioning (respondent behavior) conditioned reflex
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John B. Watson
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founder of behaviorism. psychology should not be the study of the mind, instead the science of behavior.
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Skinner
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strong advocate for the objective behavioral approach. He stressed the functional relations between environmental conditions and behavior (cause and effect relationships)
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Primary Reinforcers
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something that satisfies a biological need. Obvious things are food, sex, water, oxygen, and sleep. Others?
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Secondary Reinforcers
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something that can be exchanged to get primary reinforcers (how does one come to know this)
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Classical Conditioning
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A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
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Operant Conditioning
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A type of associative learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior (Skinner).
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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The classical conditioning term for a stimulus that already elicits a certain response without additional learning
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Unconditioned Response
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The classical- conditioning term for a response without additional learning
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Learning
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A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) as a result of a experience
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Operant Behavior
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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
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Positive Reinforcement
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After a behavior (or response) is emitted, the consequence that follows is a positive stimulus added to the situation as a result of the emitted behavior.
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Punishment
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Skinner argue that this isn't the best method of changing behavior. It temporarily surpasses a behavior but isn't that effective.
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Neutral Stimulus
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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
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Extinction
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The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in operant conditioning , it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer.
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Shaping
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An operant conditioning procedure in which a successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced.
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Conigtive Learning
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Insight learning (Kohler), Latent learning/cognitive maps (Edward Tolman), and Observational learning/bobo doll experiment (Albert Bandura)
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Insight Learning
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The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
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Observational Learning
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A process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another (a model) rather than through direct experience. Sometimes called vicarious conditioning.
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Social Learning
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Theories that emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations and beliefs.
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Latent Learning
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a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement.
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g-factor
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A general intellectual ability assumed by many theorist to underlie specific mental abilities and talents
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s-factor
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(7 specific or primary mental abilities): Verbal comprehension, number facility, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, associative memory, reasoning.
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Gardner's 8
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(1) Verbal-linguistic (2) Mathematical-Logical (3) Musical (4) Spatial (5) Bodily- Kinesthetic (6) Interpersonal (7) Intrapersonal (8) Naturalist
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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
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Analytical - what is measured in standardized tests Practical - equated with good common sense or "street smarts" Creative - the ability to solve novel problems and deal w/ unusual situations
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Stanovich
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Good thinking is two independent things. This is why smart people sometimes do dumb things and why not so smart people do really smart things intelligence Action
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Cognitive Schema
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an integrated mental network of mental images, knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world
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Insight
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a new way to interpret a problem that immediately yields the solution nutrition
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Algorithms
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A problem solving strategy guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not know how it works.
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Deductive Logic
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A type of reasoning that moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.
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Inductive Logic
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reasoning that takes specific information and makes a broader generalization that is considered probable, allowing for the fact that the conclusion may not be accurat
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Heuristics
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A rule of a thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optional solution.
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Cognitive Dissonance
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A state of tension that occurs when a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically in consistent, or when a person's belief is incongruent with his or her behavior.
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Dialectical Reasoning
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Is a process of comparing and evaluating opposing points of view.
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Gardner
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eight independent intelligences Linguistic - the ability in reading, writing, and speaking Logical-Mathematics - Mathematical problem solving and scientific analysis Spatial - Reasoning about visual spatial relationships Musical - the ability to compose and understand music Bodily-kinesthetic - skill in body movement and handling objects Intrapersonal - understanding oneself Interpersonal - understanding other people Naturalistic - the ability to discern patterns in nature
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Zimbardo
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"It is our thoughts that give meaning to everything"
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Catell
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Cattell (a former student of Spearman's) claimed that the g factor was made up of two kinds of general intelligence: Fluid Intelligence crystalized intelligence
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Spearman
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argued two basic kinds of intelligence: General ability (the 'g' factor) and Specific mental abilities ( 's' factor)
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Thurstone
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(1938) believed that the s factor was more important (7 primary mental abilities): verbal comprehension, number facility, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, associative memory, reasoning.
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Varying Definitions of emotion
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Daniel Siegel - The Developing Mind (2012) emotions exists within the individual • emotions are created between people •emotions nature in the brain: •Old mammalian - limbic system versus •Emotion is throughout the brain
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Darwin and Evolutionary Explanation
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A. Darwin, 1872 the smile, the frown, the grimace, and the glare were innate emotional expressions B. Darwin believe these facial expressions evolved and functioned: •So that at a glance one could tell of one was an enemy or a friend •They tell another our emotional state and they provoke an action
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Realistic optimism
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• are more likely than pessimists to be active problem solvers, get support from friends, and seek information that can help them
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Optimism partner with behavior
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90 year study - Conscientious people are optimists: •They believe their efforts will pay off •They act in ways to make that expectation come true
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Optimism and pessimism studies
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Need to evaluate definitions (authentic) Attitude vs. experience For optimism to reap any benefits it must be grounded in reality, such as: •Taking better care of themselves •Regard setbacks as challenges rather than as reasons to give up •Realistic optimists are more likely than pessimists to be active problem solvers, get support from friends, and seek information that can help them
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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The classical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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The classical conditioning term for a response that is excited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
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Operant Conditioning
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The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences.
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Primary reinforcement
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A stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a biological need; an example is food.
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Secondary Reinforcement
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A stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers.
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Negative Reinforcement
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A reinforcement procedure i which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus.
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Expressing on a emotions
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•Mirror neurons - mirroring is when neurons in one's brain fire through observing someone else's experience as if we had the experience ourselves. •Mirror neurons thus allow us to empathize with others' experience, it is our nonverbal rapport, and mood contagion (spreading one person's emotion to another)
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Recognizing Emotions
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•The amygdala makes the initial decision to "approach" or "withdraw"
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Acting on a particular emotion
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The right prefrontal regions are involved in "withdrawing" as in disgust and fear The left prefrontal regions are involved in motivation in "approaching" as in happiness and anger •More than average activity in the left prefrontal region than the right prefrontal region have more positive feelings and have a quicker ability to recover from negative emotions •Damage to the left prefrontal region is associated with the inability to experience "joy" Acting on a particular emotion (Continue) Parts of the prefrontal cortex are involved in regulating emotions Disease or injury to these regions of the brain of a person may make the person unable to read the emotions of another or respond to the emotions of another The energy of emotions - releasing hormones so one can respond quickly •The sympathetic nervous system of the autonomic nervous (regulated by hypothalamus) systems kicks notifies the adrenal glands to send out epinephrine and norepinephrine which produce "arousal" and "alertness" •These chemical changes prepares the body for immediate action whether it is getting close to a love one or fleeing a person who frightens you
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Locus of Control
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•Internal (West) vs. External (East) - Man's Search for Meaning (Frankl, 1959) •Related concepts •Primary control - try to influence events directly •Secondary control - accommodate to a bad situation: live with it •Coping with stress
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Bandura
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We imitate the behavior and attitudes of our role models
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John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
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They conditioned an 11 month old boy, Albert to fear a white rabbit by initially pairing it with a loud noise.
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Skinner's Study
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based on rats and pigeons
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Kholer's study (Insight Leaning)
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work with the mentality of (APES) Gestalt
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Edward Tolman's Study (Latent Learning)
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Three mazes of rat
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Bandura's Study (Observational Study)
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Bobo Doll
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Behaviorist
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Pavlov, Watson and Skinner
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How to identify a problem
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well defined - is one with clear specification where you are, where you want to be, and how you get there. ill defined - lacks specification, goal(s), and the process of achieving the solution
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Fixation
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an inability to consider a new way of solving a problem. It is when one continues to use the same failed strategy
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Functional Fixedness
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inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one (use a coin or a knife as a screwdriver)
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Metal Set
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the use or the tendency to use previously successful problem solving strategies without considering the appropriateness of the strategy given the current situation (problem).
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Fluid Intelligence (Catell)
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abilities independent of acquired knowledge, such as logical problem solving, abstract reasoning, and speed of information processing
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Crystalized (catell)
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refers to accumulated knowledge, as well as verbal and numerical skills
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Emotions evolved to help people meet the challenge of life (a functional purpose):
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They bind people together Motivate people to achieve their goals They help people make decisions and plans
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Aversion Therapy
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associate (learn) a negative consequence with the behavior
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Exposure Therapy- Systematic desensitization therapy-
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having someone take gradual steps that are positive with a behavior in the past
