question

Long-term potentiation

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the increased efficiency of synaptic transmission between certain neurons following learning.

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According to research by Peterson and Peterson (1959), meaningless information such as random groups of letters is maintained in short-term memory only briefly unless it is

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actively processed through rehearsal.

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retrieval

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The process of getting information out of memory (in order to use it) is called

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Which area of the brain is most important in the processing of implicit memories?

answer

cerebellum

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"Procedural memory" for skills such as tying your shoes, riding a bike, or typing on a keyboard is called

answer

implicit memory

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The three stages in the information-processing model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin are

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sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

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During her psychology test, Marsha could not remember the meaning of the term "proactive interference." Surprisingly, however, she accurately remembered that the term appeared on the fourth line of a left-hand page in her textbook. Her memory of this incidental information is best explained in terms of:

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automatic processing.

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Very stressful events or emotionally significant experiences seem to trigger high levels of activity in the ________ and often produce unusually strong and detailed memories called ________ memories.

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amygdala; flashbulb

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The average capacity of short-term memory (working memory) is ________ items of unrelated information.

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7

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Which of the following has been proposed as a neurophysiological explanation of "infantile amnesia"?

answer

The slow maturation of the hippocampus leaves the infant's brain unable to store events for explicit recall later in life.

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If a person is knocked unconscious, or experiences a strong electrical current passing through the brain, that person will not remember anything about the events that occurred during the preceding 10-20 minutes. The best explanation for this memory loss (called "retrograde amnesia") is that the traumatic event

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wiped the information from working memory before it could be consolidated into long-term memory.

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Memory for a personally experienced event (such as your first day at Hope College) was processed in your ________ and stored in your ________ memory subsystem.

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hippocampus; explicit

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Studies by Loftus and Palmer, in which people were quizzed about a film of an accident, indicate that

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people's recall may easily be affected by misleading information.

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Recalling something that you had once merely imagined happening as something you had directly experienced best illustrates

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source amnesia

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Repression (as proposed by Sigmund Freud) is an example o

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motivated forgetting

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Which of the following best describes the typical forgetting curve?

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A rapid initial decline in retention followed by a very slow decline

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Although interference from previously-learned information can hinder our ability to remember newly-learned information, in some cases the opposite is true. Having learned Latin in high school makes it easier to learn French in college. This memory enhancement is called

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positive transfer

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Most Americans handle pennies every day, yet can't recall the details about the appearance of a penny. This is most likely due to

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encoding failure

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Memories of childhood abuse that have been "recovered" during hypnosis or dream analysis may prove inaccurate--especially if the therapist asks leading questions--because of

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memory construction

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Walking through the halls of his high school 10 years after graduation, Tom experienced a flood of old memories. Tom's experience showed the role of

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priming based on context

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The tendency to immediately recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items is known as the ________ effect.

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serial position

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The "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon (where we are sure that we know the information, but can't seem to recall it) is an example of

answer

retrivail failure

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Anterograde amnesia (the memory problem suffered by patient "H. M.") is the inability to

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for new memories

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When Carlos was promoted, he moved into a new office with a new phone extension. Every time he is asked for his phone number, Carlos first thinks of his old extension, illustrating the effects of

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proactive interference

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After a frustrating day of work, Susan came home mildly depressed. That evening, she could think of nothing positive in her life. This is best explained as an example of

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mood-congruent memory

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n a study on context cues, scuba divers learned words while on land or when they were underwater. In a later test of recall, those with the best retention had

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learned words better when they were in the same context

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Phonemes are the basic units of ________ in language

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sound

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Which of the following is NOT true of babbling?

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imitating adults

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The form of aphasia involving the loss of the ability to comprehend spoken language is typically caused by damage to

answer

wernickes area

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Consumers respond more positively to an ad for ground beef if the beef is described as "75 percent lean" than if it is described as having "25 percent fat" content. This is an example of

answer

framing effect

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Which of the following statements is NOT supported by research on language development?

answer

a. Childhood represents a "sensitive period" for learning a second language. b. Early childhood represents a "critical period" for learning a first language. c. The age of the person makes no difference in learning a second language. Correct d. The older a person is, the more difficult it will be to learn a second language

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Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to

answer

look for information that is consistent with one's beliefs.

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The strong form of Benjamin Whorf's "linguistic determinism" hypothesis is challenged by the fact that

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we can think about events and objects for which our language has no words.

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When forming a concept, people often develop a best example, or ________, of a category.

answer

prototype

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Which of the following best describes Chomsky's view of language development?

answer

Humans have a biological predisposition to acquire language

question

Receptive language involves ________, while productive (or expressive) language involves ________.

answer

understanding; speaking

question

Mental set is an example of an obstacle to problem solving known as

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fixation

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Airline reservations typically decline after a highly publicized airplane crash because people overestimate the incidence of such disasters. In such instances, people's decisions are being influenced by

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the availability heuristic

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When a conditioned stimulus is presented without an accompanying unconditioned stimulus, ________ will soon take place.

answer

extinction

question

Last evening May-ling ate her first cheeseburger and french fries at an American fast-food restaurant. A few hours later she became ill. It can be expected that

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May-ling will develop an aversion to the taste of a cheeseburger and french fries

question

Jack finally takes out the garbage in order to get his father to stop pestering him. Jack's behavior is being conditioned by

answer

negative reinforcement

question

Researchers condition a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a/an

answer

unconditioned stimulus

question

In order to obtain a reward a monkey learns to press a lever when a 1000-Hz tone is on but not when a 1200-Hz tone is on. What kind of training is this?

answer

discrimination

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The type of learning associated with Skinner is

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operant conditioning

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Through direct experience with animals, we come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will chirp. This best illustrates

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assocative learning

question

Long after her conditioned fear of dogs had been extinguished, Marcy experienced an unexpected surge of nervousness when first shown her cousin's new cocker spaniel. Her unexpected nervousness best illustrates

answer

spontaneous recovery

question

Your psychology instructor has scheduled an exam every third week of the term. You will probably study the most just before an exam and the least just after an exam. This pattern of behavior is likely because the schedule of exams is reinforcing studying according to a ________ schedule.

answer

fixed interval

question

n Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, salivation to meat was the

answer

UR

question

As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbor's cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behavior caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats. Identify the CS.

answer

the cat

question

In Watson and Rayner's experiment with "Little Albert", the loud noise was the ________ and the white rat was the ________.

answer

US;CS

question

An empathic husband who observes his wife in pain will exhibit some of the brain activity she is showing. This best illustrates the functioning of

answer

mirror neurons

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Rewarding a child for good behavior by giving the child delicious food would be ________, whereas giving the child money would be ________.

answer

primary reinforcement; secondary or conditioned reinforcement

question

associative learning

answer

learning that certain events occur together. can be two stimuli like classical conditioning or a response and a consequence in operant conditioning

question

stimulis

answer

any event or situation the evokes a respones

question

classical conditioning

answer

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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respondent behavior

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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

question

neutral stimulus

answer

a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in classical conditioning

question

unconditioned response

answer

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

question

unconditioned stimulus

answer

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning in classical conditioning

question

conditioned response

answer

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

question

conditioned stimulus

answer

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

question

acquisition

answer

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

question

higher order conditioning

answer

A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus.

question

extinction

answer

A procedure in which the reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued. Also may be used to describe the "process" by which a previously learned behavior disappears as a result of non-reinforcement.

question

spontaneous recovery

answer

Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period

question

generalization

answer

once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus elicit similar responses

question

discrimination

answer

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

question

operant conditioning

answer

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.(skinner)

question

law of effect

answer

(psychology) the principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences

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operant chamber

answer

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

question

positive reinforcement

answer

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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negative reinforcement

answer

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

question

primary reinforcer

answer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

question

secondary reinforcer

answer

Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic value for an organism but that becomes rewarding when linked with a primary reinforcer

question

fixed ratio schedule

answer

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

question

variable ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

question

fixed interval schedule

answer

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

question

variable interval schedule

answer

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

question

punishment

answer

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

question

cognitive map

answer

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

question

latent learning

answer

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

question

intrinsic motivation

answer

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

question

extrinsic motivation

answer

A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

question

recall

answer

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

question

recognition

answer

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

question

relearning

answer

A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

question

encoding

answer

the processing of information into the memory system

question

storage

answer

the retention of encoded info over time

question

sensory memory

answer

the immediate very brief recording of info in the memory system

question

short term memory

answer

Actived memory that hold a few items briefly. - Duration 20 to 30 seconds - Capacity - 7 items

question

long term memory

answer

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (knowledge, skills and experience)

question

working memory

answer

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

question

explicit memory

answer

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

question

automatic processing

answer

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

question

implicit memory

answer

Retention independent of conscious recollection. "non declarative like riding bike or walking

question

iconic memory

answer

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

question

echoic memory

answer

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

question

priming

answer

Activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

question

mood congruent memory

answer

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

question

serial position effect

answer

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

question

retrograde amnesia

answer

An inability to retrieve information from one's past.

question

repression

answer

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

question

heuristic

answer

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

question

insight

answer

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

question

confirmation bias

answer

A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

question

mental set

answer

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

question

intuition

answer

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

question

morpheme

answer

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

question

aphasia

answer

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

question

brocas area

answer

controls language expression-area of the frontal lobe in left hemisphere that directs muscle movements invloved in speech

question

wernickes area

answer

Contorls language reception. Damage creates inability to comprehend language; usually in the left temporal lobe

question

linguistic determination

answer

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

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