Psych 211 Developmental Psychology Chapter 4 & 5 – Flashcards
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Explain the cephalocaudal growth trend.
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Children grow from top to bottom; the head appears large.
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Explain the proximodistal trend.
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Children grow from near to far; trunk first and then extremities like limbs.
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What is the best measure of physical maturity?
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Skeletal age. X-rays determine how many epiphyses and the extent of their fusion.
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What are fontanels?
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They are the six soft spots in the skull.
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What role do fontanels play?
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They allow the brain room to grow. They allow overlap of the plates during birth. When fused they are called sutures.
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Explain synaptic pruning.
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Neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their synapses and return the neurons to an uncommitted state. This helps future development. About 40% of synapses will be pruned.
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What are glial cells?
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Glial cells are responsible for myelinating neurons. They contribute to the dramatic increase in brain volume from 0-2 yrs.
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What is myelination?
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A sheath covers the neurons to help speed up transmission of info. It is a fatty sheath that is observed as white matter.
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Which part of the brain has the longest development period?
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The prefrontal cortex. It peaks from ages 1-5 years.
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Which methods for observing brain functioning can only view the cerebral cortex? (3)
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EEG ERP NIRS
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Which brain functioning methods can view any part of the brain?
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fMRI PET
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Why is PET not a preferred method?
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It involves harmful radiation
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Which methods observe changes in blood flow and oxygen metabolism?
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NIRS- looks at the amount of IR radiation that is absorbed as a function of blood flow and O2 metabolism fMRI- measures changes due to magnetic field PET- ingestion of radioactive substance and its subsequent emission of gamma rays measure bloodflow and O2 uptake
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Why are EEG and NIRS preferable for children?
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They allow movement and also to be held by parents.
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What is experience expectant growth?
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This is the stimulation required for normal development due to everyday experiences. Early is essential because synaptic pruning begins early as well. Think of orphanage studies.
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What is experience dependent growth?
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This is the stimulation that leads to specialization of certain skills. It occurs throughout life so there is no need to bombard the child in their early years (this can even be detrimental).
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How does sleep change in infancy and toddlerhood?
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The baby slowly adjusts its sleep schedule to resemble more adult-like habits. They still take two naps until about 18 mos, where they take one.
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What is melatonin?
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It is the hormone that causes drowsiness. Not until 18 mos is it higher at night than during the day. Therefore, biology may be at odds with Western expectations.
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Why is breast milk advantageous for babies?
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It has high fat and low protein. Contains antibodies until the baby's immune system develops. Prevents tooth decay. Easier on the digestive system.
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What causes the correlation between overweight babies and later obesity?
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It is less genetic and more environmental. This is when they learn eating habits that can impact their choices later.
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What is maramus?
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-A condition occurring in the first year of life. - The baby is deficient of all nutrients. -when a baby's mother is too malnourished to produce enough break milk, and bottle feeding is inadequate.
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What is kwashiorkor?
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Occurring from 1-3 years of age it is a deficiency of protein.
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What are the causes and consequences of growth-faltering?
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A disrupted parent-child relationship causes abnormal growth patterns like small head, low weight, and are apathetic and withdrawn. Stressful family life is usually a cause.
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Name the four ways in which we observe learning capacities of children.
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1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning 3. Imitation 4. Habituation
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What is classical conditioning?
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The pairing of a natural response to a neutral stimulus that does not naturally evoke the response.
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Why do babies classically condition?
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It helps them form predictability in their environment.
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What is operant conditioning?
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This describes how the likelihood of an event recurring is determined by the reinforcement for punishment of behaviour. It tells us things they prefer (they will be reinforced) and also which stimuli they can differentiate.
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At what ages are imitation skills strong?
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Newborns imitate facial expressions quite well (sticking their tongue out). After a few months they do not imitate right away not because they can't but because they play games first/
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Explain mirror neurons role in imitation.
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They are specialized neurons in the cerebral cortex. They theoretically allow us to imitation what we see with what we feel ourselves doing as they fire identically whether we see/hear or actually perform a task.
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What ability are mirror neurons linked to?
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Empathy as they send information to the limbic system.
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What is habituation?
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The gradual reduction in the strength of a response to a stimuli that is repetitive.
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What is recovery?
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Once babies habituation, their arousal is decreased. However, upon presentation of a new stimulus, the arousal levels "recover" or increase again.
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What two ways do we use habituation (hint: they use different time spans)?
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If we use it in recent time frame it assesses novelty. So if one picture is shown, they habituate and then a slightly different picture is shown and they recover, they can tell the difference. If we use it in a remote or long time frame, it assesses familiarity. So take them to a place they were once a long time ago, high arousal indicates they remember.
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What is a good way to test Executive Functioning in babies?
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Look at their ability to habituate! It also indicates the future abilities because fast habituation means we can readily focus on what is going to help us learn (ie, things we don't already know).
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Define lateralization and explain its role.
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It is the tendency of the two hemispheres to have slightly different abilities (right is analytic while left is language). It allows for efficient processing.
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Discuss the pros and cons of plasticity.
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Having the ability to adapt brain regions is advantageous in cases of damage; then we can still have those functions. However, by consuming other parts of the brain it decreases the ability of other functions.
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When does plasticity reach its peak?
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Before lateralization, which occurs in utero.
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True of false: Motor development must occurs in a certain sequence.
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False. Although some fundamentals must be learned (hold head up before sitting up) motor skills are learned differently based on environment and culture. As well, some never develop (some people never crawl). It is only a concern if many skills are delayed.
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Explain the dynamic motor systems theory.
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Multiple actions blend together to create a new skill. Skills build on each other and become increasingly complex.
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How are motor skill developments usually studied?
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Microgenetic studies
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What is a major fine-motor development in infancy and toddlerhood?
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Reaching and grasping change dramatically. Ulnar (clumsy grasp with all fingers curling) Pincer (very controlled use of a couple fingers)
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Define perceptual development.
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It is integrating a meaning with sensation. So sight is a sensory response, but our ability to understand what we see and use it for our knowledge is perception.
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What are several signs that indicate labour is near?
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o False labor/pre labor - Upper part of uterus contracts - Brief and unpredictable o Lightening - Head drops into lower uterus - Cervix begins to soften o Bloody show - Plug of mucus that seals cervix during pregnancy is released - reddish discharge
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What happens in the first stage of labour?
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-Dilation and Effacement of the Cervix -12-14 hours for first birth, 4-6 for others -Transition o Climax of this stage o Cervix opens completely, contractions are at their peak o Most uncomfortable part of childbirth o Very important to relax during this time
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What happens in the second stage of labour?
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- Delivery of the baby - Last 50/20 minutes - Natural urge to squeeze and push
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What happens in the third stage of labour?
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-Birth of the placenta -5 to 10 minutes
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What is the Apgar Scale?
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-Assessing the Newborn's Physical Condition. -Rating used to assess the newborn baby's physical condition immediately after birth
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Medical interventions: Fetal Monitors
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o Most US hospitals require continuous fetal monitoring o In Canada - reserved for babies at risk for birth complications o Electronic instruments that track the baby's heart rate during labor o Linked to increase in instrument and surgical deliveries
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Labour and delivery medications are
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Analgesics o Mild pain-relieving drugs o Epidural analgesia -Drug delivered continuously through catheter into small space in the lower spine Anesthetics
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What are some problems with delivery medications?
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o Weakens uterine contractions, labor is prolonged o Negative impact of these drugs on the newborn's adjustment supports the current trend to limit their use
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What does induced labour consist of?
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-Breaking amnion - bag of waters (occurs normally in first stage of labor) - Give mom synthetic oxytocin - Increasing possibility of inadequate oxygen supply to the baby - More difficult to control - Rate of c-section is high because mother is not ready to deliver - Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) - Predicts success of induced labor - Mothers with high levels are more likely to respond well than those with low levels
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What is a Cesarean Delivery? Why does it happen?
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o Incision in abdomen, and lifting of the baby out of the uterus o Warranted in emergencies Why? o RH incompatibility o Premature separation of placenta o Maternal illness or infection o Breech position o Natural labor after cesarean is associated with slightly increased rates of rupture of uterus and infant death
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Birth Complications include things such as..?
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- Oxygen deprivation (can lead to cerebral palsy, Anoxia) -Preterm and low birth weight infants (less than 5.5 lbs)
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Interventions for preterm infants include
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o A special Plexiglas-enclosed bed called an isolette o Temperature carefully controlled o Air is filtered
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Special infant stimulation is important because?
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-Certain kinds can help preterm infants develop -Touch is an especially important form of stimulation - Releases certain brain chemicals that support physical growth Ex: Kangaroo care (Hold infant close to chest to promote oxygenation of baby's body, temperature regulation, feeding, alertness, and more favourable development)
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What is the difference between infant mortality, and neonatal mortality rates?
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Infant= # of deaths in first year/1000 Neonatal= # of deaths in first month/1000
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Explain reflexes
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o Inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation o Adaptive value of reflexes o Some have survival value - Rooting reflex - Swimming reflex - Moro reflex - Palmar grasp reflex o Some help parents and infants establish gratifying interaction o Help parents comfort the baby
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Reflexes and the development of motor skills
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o Basis for complex motor skills - Tonic neck reflex (Prepare for voluntary reaching) o Certain reflexes drop out early, but the motor functions involved are renewed later Stepping reflex Tend to walk several weeks earlier than if stepping is not practiced Swimming lessons are best postponed until at least 3 years of age
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What is the importance of assessing newborn reflexes
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o Most newborn reflexes disappear during first 6 months o Due to gradual increase in voluntary control o Can reveal health of the baby's nervous system
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How many states of arousal are there (Hint: Sleep)
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o Different degrees of sleep and wakefulness o During first month, these states alternate frequently (Mostly sleeping - 16 to 18 hours a day for newborns) o Babies who spend more time alert probably receive more social stimulation; have a slight advantage in mental development -Brain activity like waking state -Stimulation of REM is vital for growth of CNS - % of REM in preterms is especially great - Deliver oxygen to parts of the eye that do not have their own blood supply -REM and NREM
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Why do babies cry?
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o First way babies communicate o Nature of the cry helps guide parents toward its cause o Inborn capacity to react to the suffering of others
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Why does abnormal crying happen?
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- Clue to CNS distress - Shrill, piercing, short in duration - Colic • Persistent crying - Preterm and ill babies are more likely to be abused by highly stressed parents
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Explain the sense of touch for babies
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- is well developed at birth o High-pitched, stressful cry and a dramatic rise in heart rate, blood pressure, palm sweating, pupil dilation and muscle tension o Sugar solution is helpful o Physical touch releases endorphins o Allowing newborn to endure pain overwhelms nervous system with stress hormones
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Explain the sense of taste and smell for babies
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o Odor preferences are present at birth o Help mothers and babies identify each other
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Explain the sense of hearing for babies
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o At birth, infants prefer complex sounds o Young infants listen longer to human speech than to structurally similar nonspeech sounds o Only a few speech sounds that newborns cannot discriminate o Ability to perceive sounds not found in their own language is more precise than an adult's o High-pitched expressive voice with rising tone (newborns prefer this)
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Explain the sense of vision for babies
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o Least developed at birth o Cells in retina - not as mature or densely packed o Optic nerve - will not be adult-like for several years o Muscles of lens are weak o Visual acuity- Limited for newborn babies, Fineness of visual discrimination o Infant is sensitive to its broad outlines rather than its fine-grained features
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What is the Neonatal Behaviour Assessment Scale?
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o Test developed to assess behaviour or a newborn infant in terms of reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to stimuli, and other reactions o Changes in scores over first weeks provide the best estimate of the baby's ability to recover from stress at birth
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What are the three newborn assessments discussed?
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Apgar Ballard Brazelton
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When is the Apgar scale used?
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It is used twice; once within one minute of birth and again at five minutes.
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What does the Apgar assess?
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Physical development of the child focusing on: Colour (Appearance) Heartrate (Pulse) Reflex irritability (Grimace) Muscle tone (Activity) Respiratory effort (Respiration) For a score out of 10 points
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What does the Ballard test?
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Within the first day of life it is used to assess the gestational age of the child. It uses neuromotor maturity and physical maturity. *Remember premature babies have less flexion in their legs
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What does the Brazelton test?
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The neurological and behavioural abilities of the child. Looks at reflexes, cognitive, and social skills. Assesses how well they are adapted to the world.
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What is cyanosis?
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It is insufficient oxygen levels in the blood. In the first weeks of life it can be due to stress; the baby will appear bluish.
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Why is an underweight full-term baby more worrisome than an underweight preme?
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If the baby is underweight but full-term that means they have been malnourished for longer than a preme.
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What are negative side effects of anesthetics during labour?
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- can prolong labour -irritable and withdrawn baby
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How is labour induced?
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- providing synthetic oxytocin -breaking the amnionic sac
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Which reflexes have survival origins?
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Eye blink- close eyes with bright lights Rooting- turning their head if brushed by nipple near mouth Sucking Swimming Moro- embraces to cling if "dropped"
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Which reflexes help prepare for later voluntary movements?
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Palmer grasp Tonic neck- move head in direction of arm Stepping
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Why do we assess reflexes?
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They tell us about the health of the nervous system
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What are babies sleep-wake cycles based on?
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Newborns are not based on light and dark like adults but rather hunger and fullness.
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Main points of SIDS reading
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--less than 1 yr old -linked to abnormal sleep patterns -low serotonin -abnormal control centers for breathing and arousal
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How do neurons send messages?
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by releasing a chemical, neurotransmitters, which cross the synapse.
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Explain the cerebral cortex
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surrounds the rest of the brain and resembles half of a shelled walnut. -Largest structure accounting for 85% of brain's weight and containing the greatest number of neurons and synapses.
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Explain the prefrontal cortex
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Responsible for thought (consciousness, inhibition of impulses, integration of information, use of memory, planning, reason, problem solving).
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What does the left side of the brain deal with?
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verbal abilities (spoken and written) and positive emotion. -better at processing info piece by piece
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What does the right side of the brain deal with?
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spatial abilities: judging distances, reading maps, and negative emotions. -while right is better at processing info by looking at the whole picture (holistically).
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What is lateralization, and what happens after the hemispheres are already lateralized and damage has occurred to an area
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-The specialization of the two hemispheres in the brain -damage to a specific region means that the abilities it controls cannot be recovered to same extent, or as easily as before. • At birth, hemispheres already begun to specialize. Ex. Most show greater activation in left when listening to speech displaying positive state of arousal, and right active in spatial and negative reactions.
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What is brain plasticity
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A highly plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet committed to a specific function- has a high capacity for learning. And if part of cortex is damaged, other adjacent parts can take over the tasks it would have handled.
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Explain statistical learning capacity
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analyzing the speech stream for patterns, they acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will alter learn meanings, long before they state to talk around 12 months
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Explain contrast sensitivity
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Explains early patter preferences. Contrast refers to the difference in the amount of light between adjacent regions in a patters. If babies are sensitive to (can detect) the contrast in two or more patterns they prefer the one with more contrast.
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Explain Size constancy
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perception of an objects size as the same despite changes in the size of its retinal image
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Explain shape constancy
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Perception of an object's shape as stable despite changes in the shape projected on the retina
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Explain what intermodal perception is
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we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information, perceiving them as integrated wholes. We know for ex that an object's shape is the same whether we see it or tough it, that lip movements are closely coordinated with the sound of a voice, and that dropping a rigid object on a hard surface will cause a sharp banging sound
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what is amodal sensory properties
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info that is not specific to a single modality but that overlaps two or more sensory systems, such as rate, rhythm, duration, intensity, and texture and shape (seeing and hearing a bouncing ball)
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Explain Differentiation theory
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Infants actively search for invariant features of the environment- those that remain stable- in a constantly changing perceptual world.
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What are affordances
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The action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certain motor capabilties
