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Open skills

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environment is unpredictable (driving for a layup)

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Closed Skills

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environment is predictable (free-throw)

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Discrete Skills

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easily defined beginning and ending (Throwing a ball)

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Serial Skills

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A group of discrete skills linked together (shifting a car)

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Continuous Skills

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Ongoing, no definitive end (swimming, running, etc)

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Skill is

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achieving some defined goal with maximum certainty of success, while minimizing the energy cost to performer and time used.

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3 Critical elements to skill

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perceiving relevant environmental stimulus, deciding appropriately, acting accordingly

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Tracking (a type of continuous skill)

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in which the performer's limb movements control a lever, a wheel, a handle, or some other device to follow the movements of some target-track. (steering a car)

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information-processing approach

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the human is like a computer; info comes in and gets processed and actions are performed. 3 stages

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3 stages info processing

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1 Stimulus identification, 2 Response Selection, 3 Movement programing (aka Effector mechanism). Non-overlapping but 2 and 3 can pre-program.

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Stage 1 Stimulus identification

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Is there stimulus? What is it? Sensory and perception stage. Stimuli assembled. Patterns of movement detected.

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Stage 2 Response Selection

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This stage has the task of deciding what response to make, given the nature of the situation and environment.

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Stage 3 Movement programing (aka Effector mechanism)

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The movement programming stage has the task of organizing the motor system to make the desired movement.

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Reaction Time

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Reaction time (abbreviated RT) is one of the most important tools that researchers have used for many decades to learn about these stages.

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Movement Time

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That period of time, from the end of RT until the completion of the movement, is typically called the "movement time"

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Response Time

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What many refer to as brake RT (time to hit brakes on a car) is actually the total of RT plus MT— what is called response time.

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choice reaction time

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the performer must choose one response from a subset of possible predetermined movements.

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simple RT

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one stimulus and one response. Fast

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Hick's Law

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Increased choice RT due to a greater number of S-R alternatives, choice RT is linearly related to the amount of information that must be processed to

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Stimulus-Response Compatibility

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(stove top; small knob for small burner, top knob for back burner) bicycle handles turn left = whole bike goes left.

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population stereotypes.

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we sometimes act habitually due to specific cultural learning. Red = stop. Green=go.

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Anticipating

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can offset RT delay

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Event anticipation and Spatial anticipation

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What will occur? Where will it happen?

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Spatial anticipation

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When will it happen?

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Benefits and detriments of anticipation

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Getting it right = benefit. Getting it wrong= penalty

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Memory

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The storage of the results of the various information-processing activities. Three distinct memory systems involved in movement control: short-term sensory store, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

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short-term sensory store

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1-2 seconds. Holding cell for all sensory info to get pushed through, some attended to

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short-term memory

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aka working memory. (7 items +- 2) Temporary, 1-3 mins. Rehearsal keeps info here. Info can be passed to Long term.

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long-term memory

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Place for very well-learned info collected over the lifetime. Limitless in capacity. effort to get info here. Discrete skills more quickly forgotten than continuous ones.

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Attention

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a limited resource. It is serial in that it only focuses one thing (whatever is first). can be directed internally or externally.

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William James (1890) on attention

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Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness, is of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.

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limitation to stage 1. parallel processing

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During Stimulus ID stage - Information from different aspects of the visual display, such as the color and the shape of objects, can apparently be processed together without interference. Motor skills - posture and walking involve lots of PP. Causes a bottleneck though.

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sustained attention

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tends to wane after extended periods of information processing. A number of factors are known to affect vigilance, or sustained attention; these include the operator's motivation, arousal, and, of course, fatigue (clearly related to the accumulated amount of time in performing the task). Environmental factors, such as temperature and noise, are also known to affect sustained attention. the number and similarity of distracting objects play an important role in the success of the search.

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limitation to stage 1. Stroop effect (type of parallel proc)

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the tendency for the set of stimuli - spelled colors like "blue" and "green" typed in non-corresponding colors, like blue typed in yellow - to require longer completion times to name the colors

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Cherry's cocktail party effect

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picking up your name from across the room while having a conversation.

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dichotic listening

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listening to two different people, one in each head phone speaker. The one not focused on can still be identified in surface features - tone, loudness

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limitation to stage 1. Inattention blindness

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Missing the rather obvious "gorilla" is likely to occur only under a restricted set of circumstances, however— when the viewer is engaged in a specific search task.

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"looked-but-failed-to-see" accidents;

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here, even though there is evidence that the driver looked, he still drove into the path of a pedestrian, bicycle, or another vehicle, causing an accident

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controlled processing

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which is thought to be (a) slow; (b) attention demanding, with interference caused by competing processing; (c) serially organized, with a given processing task coming before or after other processing tasks; and (d) volitional, easily halted or avoided altogether.

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automatic processing

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is (a) fast; (b) not attention demanding, in that such processes do not generate (very much) interference with other tasks; (c) organized in parallel, occurring together with other processing tasks; and (d) involuntary, often unavoidable. Automatic information processing is thought to be the result of an enormous amount of practice (an adult walking)

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Costs and benefits of automaticity

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Thus, automaticity seems most effective in closed skills, where the environment is relatively predictable. With open skills, so many more patterns are possible that the performer must develop an automatic response to each of them; this is generally possible only after many years of experience.

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consistent-mapping condition

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where the response generated is related consistently to a particular stimulus pattern. For example, the response to a red light during driving is always to bring the vehicle to a stop. Best way to achieve automaticity

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"varied-mapping" condition

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where a given stimulus sometimes leads to one response and sometimes to another response. Almost impossible for automaticity to be achieved

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limitation to stage 2.Distracted driving

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its the mental effort put into the conversation, attention, that creates accidents, lacking attention at driving

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limitation to stage 2.double-stimulation paradigm

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where the subject is required to respond, with separate responses, to each of two stimuli presented very closely together in time. The delays in responding occur because of the interference that arises in programming the first and second movements as rapidly as possible.

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limitation to stage 3. psychological refractory period (PRP)

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The delay in responding to the second of two closely spaced stimuli is termed the psychological refractory period (PRP). the processing of the first stimulus and response completely blocks the processing of the second stimulus and response until such time that the processing of the first stimulus and response has been completed. S1--S2----R to S1-------------R to S2 One explanation for the PRP is that there is a kind of "bottleneck" in the movement programming stage, and that this stage can organize and initiate only one action at a time

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stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA)

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The separation between the onsets of the two stimuli. Fencing feint, wide receiver juke. If S2 and S1 are less than 40 ms apart, it gets processed as one. If too far apart (100ms) they are easily processed.

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probe-task technique

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the RT to the probe as a measure of the attention demanded by the primary task; a more attention-demanding primary task would result in slower responses to the probe stimulus signal than would a primary task that demanded less attention.

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external focus of attention

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results in more skilled performance than an internal focus of attention. would attention be directed more effectively at an external target, such as an object to be struck or the intended effect that the action will have on the environment?

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internal focus of attention.

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results in less skilled performance than an external focus of attention example: monitoring the ongoing movement,

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choking

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shift in attentional focus can reduce performance quality, leading to further internalized focus and a heightened anxiety. This downward spiral is one cause of choking.

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Arousal

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the level of excitement produced under stress, is a common aspect of skill performance situations.

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limitation to stage 3. Inverted-U principle

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The idea is that increasing the arousal level generally enhances performance, but only to a point. Doesn't apply to every sport or activity (piano vs, boxing) or every individual.

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limitation to stage 3. perceptual narrowing

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important change in information processing that occurs with high arousal is perceptual narrowing— the tendency for the perceptual field to shrink under stress. aka tunnel vision or weapon focus Occurs in each of our senses.

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limitation to stage 3. "choking under pressure"

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is reserved for situations in which performers change their normal routine or fail to adapt to a changing situation, resulting in the failed performance.

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limitation to stage 3. Choking theory 1 - Attentional control theory (Eysenck et al., 2007)

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suggests that increased levels of anxiety tend to reduce "controlled" selective attention activities of the performer and increase the attention to certain potentially lifesaving cues.

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limitation to stage 3. Choking theory 2 - Change in attentional focus Beilock (2010)

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As the pressure builds to perform well in a critical situation, athletes who choke often shift from performing in an overlearned, automatic type of attentional (external) focus to a more conscious, controlled (internal) focus of attention.

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Exteroception

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provides information to the processing system about the state of the environment in which one's body exists. from vision and audition.Inherent.

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Proprioception

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provides information about the state of the body itself. inherent. from Golgi tendon organs, joint receptors, muscle spindle, cutaneous receptor, vestibular apparatus. Central nervous system uses these inputs for body awareness.

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Golgi tendon organs

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Near the junction between the skeletal muscle and its tendon. They are very sensitive to the level of force(tension) in the various parts of the muscle (and tendon) to which they are attached. Gives information about changing muscle tension.

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joint receptors

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give information about extreme positions of the joints

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muscle spindle

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in the muscles, gives indirect information about joint position. Gives info about changing muscle length (stretching muscle, contracting)

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vestibular apparatus

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balance, posture

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closed-loop (CL) control systems

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four distinct parts: 1. An executive for decision making about errors 2. An effector system for carrying out the decisions 3. A comparator, reference of correctness against which the feedback is compared to define an error 4. An error signal, which is the information acted on by the executive the loop from the executive to the effector and back to the executive again is completely "closed" by sensory information, or feedback, forming a "loop" that supports the mechanism

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CL control system in the conceptual model

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The model is useful for slow movements, where corrections of errors can be made, as well as fast ones, when corrections of the error must wait until the movements have been completed. Useful for understanding the maintenance of a particular state, as is necessary to perform many long-duration activities. (like good posture while sitting)

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Limitations of CL

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However, these stages of processing represent a big disadvantage at the same speed— they are slow, especially when there is high demand for processing time, resources, or both, as in many complex actions

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anticipated sensory feedback

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At the same time, information is specified to define the sensory qualities of the correct movement, such as the "feel" of an effective ax swing. This information represents the performer's anticipated sensory feedback, that is, the sensations that should be generated if the movement is performed correctly.

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Feedforward

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Feedforward information represents anticipated sensory consequences of the movement that should be received if the movement is correct, so that the error would now be zero.

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comparator

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These movement-produced stimuli (moving a coffee cup on a table), whose nature is critically dependent on the production of a particular action by the performer, are compared against their anticipated states in the comparator. The computed difference represents error, which is returned to the executive. This process refines and maintains the performer's behavior, holding errors at acceptably low levels. The comparator is also thought to define and maintain the desired relative positions of the various limbs as well as the general orientation in space.

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Tracking tasks

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The stages of information processing take considerable time. Therefore, the closed-loop system is also solw. The error now becomes the stimulus and drives the executive. Max rate of correction is 3 per second. More than 3 per second = poo performance. For this reason, closed-loop control processes are most relevant to tasks that are relatively slow or have a long duration in time.

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Rapid, discrete tasks

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Doesn't work well in CL system. No time for feedback to do any good except for the next try. Reflex M1, M2, M3, can help modify movement. More than any other observation, this sluggishness of feedback control has led scientists to believe that most rapid movements must be organized (programmed) in advance.

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proprioceptive CL control

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reflexive mechanisms that operate below our level of consciousness. One of the most well known of these is the so-called knee-jerk reflex. 30-50ms reflex, it does not pass through the CL system. (bypasses the 3 information processing stages)

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M2

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The M2 loop in figure 4.3 goes from the muscle to higher levels in the CNS. Together, these monosynaptic (M1) and multisynaptic (M2) reflexes are just two of the many types of reflexive mechanisms by which actions can be modified quickly (and automatically),

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M1

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Within the "effector" box (motor program- spinal cord- muscles), we have added a feedback loop (the so-called M1 loop) from the muscle to the spinal cord and back to the same muscle.

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ventral stream

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ventral stream is specialized for conscious identification of objects that lie primarily in the center of the visual field. Its major function seems to be providing answers to the general question "What is it?". Need adequate lighting to see.

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dorsal stream

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The dorsal stream is believed to be specialized for movement control. Distinct from the ventral stream, which is sensitive only to events in central vision, dorsal vision involves the entire visual field, central and peripheral. Dorsal vision operates nonconsciously, contributing to the fine control of movements without our awareness (see Focus on Research 4.1). Its function is to provide answers to the questions "Where is it?" or perhaps "Where am I relative to it?"

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Blindsight

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Confirms dorsal vision. Usually defined by a medical condition in which the person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.

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dorsal stream movement control

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Unconscious. Fast. Inflexible. optical array and optical control. The closer something comes to you the faster it will get bigger (semi-truck example). 100-75, not much change in visual image. 50-25 pronounced change.

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optical array

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As the cyclist looks into this textured environment, each visible feature reflects rays of light, which enter the eyes at specific angles; collectively

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optical control

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a "flow of light" across the retina. Provides numerous important kinds of information about the cyclist's movement through the environment, such as time before a collision between the cyclist and an object, direction of movement relative to objects in the environment, movement of environmental objects relative to the

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Balance

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proprioception info and vision are needed

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Ventral Stream

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consciousness, describes what you are looking at in central field of vision, is slow and processed through the 3 step info proc system

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movement planning and vision

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Figure 4.9 Movements completed in times less than 200 ms showed no improvement in accuracy with the ambient lights on (compared to lights off), but movements made in times longer than 250 ms did benefit from having the lights on. the minimum time to use visual feedback in aiming is 190 ms and 250 ms. any faster movements don't use visual feedback during the movement.

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Saccadic shifts

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Saccadic shifts provide us with the capability to pick up information rapidly from a wide range of sources in our visual environment, for example as required when driving

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"quiet-eye" effect

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Expert performers keep their eyes fixated for a longer period of time just before movement onset than do nonexperts.termed the "quiet-eye" effect

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smooth-pursuit movements

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The goal of smooth-pursuit movements is to keep the target of our gaze fixed on the fovea of the retina. The eyes fixate on an object that is either motionless or moving slowly, allowing the viewer to pick up precise detail.

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Audition and motor control

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Vision can overrule auditory info. delayed auditory feedback(hearing yourself) can result in slow speech and errors in timing and movements like playing an instrument.

Motor learning and performance, Schmidt – Flashcards

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