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Motor Control

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The study of movements in humans and animals. The ability to regulate or direct mechanisms essential to movement.

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Motor Learning

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A set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in capability for skilled movement.

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Movement

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Genetic and learned movements (skills). Simple to complex

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Motor skill

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Mutual interaction between our motor system and environment.

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Discrete skill

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Recognizable beginning and end. EX: throwing, striking a match, shifting gears, sit to stand, joint mob, writing your name, tying a shoe, blinking

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Serial skill

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Discrete actions strung together, order and time important. Ex: playing piano, assembly-line tasks, gymnastics routine, exercises

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Continuous skill

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No recognizable beginning and end. Ex: swimming, steering a car, tracking,running, the wii tracking games, rope wave, KB swing

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Open environment

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Environment constantly changing. Unpredictable and requires flexibility in planning and responding. Ex: kayaking, basketball game.

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Closed environment

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Predictable environment, learned through practice, enough to plan several seconds ahead. Ex: Golf swing, joint mob, gymnastics routine, archery, free throw

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Part practice

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Break movement into parts then string together for whole movement. -Practice most relevant parts -Use when task is too complex, not organized, a discrete task (<1 sec duration), or when there are multiple motor programs

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Whole practice

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Use when most important problem is how to coordinate actions, when only a single motor program, and there are simultaneous parts.

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Motor program

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A program that is stored in memory and responsible for a particular class of actions. Ex: writing name with dominant hand vs non-dominant or backwards. More academic way of tying together MC/ML principles.

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Backward chaining

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Practice last element first, working backwards. Ex: C, C... BC, BC... ABC, ABC

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Progressive part method

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Practice two parts of the skill, practice third part, add parts together. Ex: AB, AB... C, C... ABC, ABC

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Repetitive-part method

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Learner adds each new part to the previous parts. Ex: A, A... AB, AB... ABC, ABC

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Fractionization

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Components are performed simultaneously. Ex: breaks stroke, windsurfing

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Continuous task

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Tasks must be coordinated with each other

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Serial tasks

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Parts are segmented in time.

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Guidance

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Physical assistance during task acquisition. Meant to eliminate error and decrease contextual interference. - Physical, mechanical, verbal - Helpful for injury/disease - Guidelines: - Early in practice with unfamiliar task/ novice learner -Effective for slow/complex tasks

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Inherent feedback

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Learner can predict outcome, learned reference of correctness, clear

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Augmented feedback

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Info that is not normally available, supplemental info about a movement. Ex: time/buzzer, communicated info

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Feedback

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A form of guidance

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Knowledge of performance (KP)

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Info about the movement patter, focuses attention, used commonly in clinic. Type: video, kinematics, biofeedback

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Knowledge of results (KR)

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The outcome can be qualitative. Relates to the goal not the actual movement. Want some delay (seconds) of giving feedback. Support long term memory, active practice.

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Relative frequency

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more KR at the beginning and trails off towards the end of the trials

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Absolute

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Every so many trials you are giving feedback whether the trials were good or bad

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Blocked KR

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Feedback presented refers to the same task quality

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Random KR

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Feedback presented refers to different task qualities. More contextual interference.

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Challenge point hypothesis

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Point where the challenge yields maximum practice benefits. Involved the amount of contextual interference but also individualized for each patient

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Guidance hypothesis

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"Less is better"

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Active practice

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Deliberate practice. Requires cognitive effort, repetition, error detection/correction, problem solving, motivation. Establishes and elaborates representations of movement in memory -> stronger motor patterns

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Motor learning vs motor performance

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Motor learning: longer term, permanent changes. Measures retention/transfer. Motor performance: short term, acquisition of motor behavior. Observe during practice "snap shot in time" Distributed is better than massed practice for ML and MP *Watch out for ceiling/floor effects*

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Cognitive stage of motor learning

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Novice. Basic movement pattern developed. Internal focus. Requires lots of attention. Lots of errors and inconsistent performance. May benefit from blocked practice. Closed loop feedback.

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Associative stage of motor learning

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Larger gains in performance. Begins to refine 1 movement pattern. Error detection/correction strategies. May benefit from random practice.

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Autonomous stage of motor learning

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Many hours of active practice. Task automation. Many not reach this level. More external focus. May benefit from random practice. Low degree of attention needed. Open loop and feedforward.

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Patient centered constraints

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Individualized

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Law of practice

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Rate of change in performance moves toward 0. As we practice, we get better.

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Task motivation

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Patient sets the goal leads to better retention.

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Massed practice

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Run close together. Little to no rest in between trials. Work>rest. More for discrete tasks. Ex: circuit training.

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Distributed practice

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Work intervals spaced apart. Rest ≥ Work. Allows for time reflection and error correction/detection.

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Varied practice

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Practicing several variations of a task in a single session (has less errors). Strengths motor programs. Better in retention.

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Constant practice

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Practicing one variation in a single session. Better in acquisition.

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Blocked practice

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Practice sequence that repeatedly rehearses the same task. Perform ALL trials of one task together. Better in acquisition and novel tasks.

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Random practice

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Practice sequence where several tasks are practiced in no particular order. Same task is rarely repeated. Better in retention/transfer and for tasks that are less similar or more complex.

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Performance learning paradox: elaborative processing hypothesis

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Comparative and contrastive analyses. Makes tasks more meaningful (memorable) to store to long term memory.

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Performance learning paradox: reconstruction hypothesis

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"Forgetting hypothesis". Shifting from different parts of a task can lead to forgetting what we were originally practicing. Reconstruct what was forgotten into "working memory".

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Dementia

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Affects 2 or more cognitive domains. Cognitive impairment is greater than found with normal aging. May benefit from random practice. Different from normal age related decline.

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Passive storage

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Little decrement seen in the elderly

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Holding and processing

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Remembering while performing cognitive functions. Declines with aging.

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Memory and aging

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Decrement: explicit (declarative) > implicit. Ex: Alzheimer's.

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Processing speed and age

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Reaction time increased. Slower choice reaction time. Slower retrieval

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Attention and age

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Selective and divided attention. Can increase fall risk.

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Treating elderly patients

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Written customized instruction. Self-evaluation of performance and learning strategies. Self-monitoring leads to becoming cognitively aware. Socialize and stay active.

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Postural control

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Body position

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Postural orientation

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Body segments

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Postural stability

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Center of mass and base of support.

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Intrinsic feedback

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Open loop. Auditory, tactile, vestibular, vision. Vision used for very fast tasks, can't rely on vision for feedback.

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Ensemble control

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Central processing of multiple receptors. Goal: balance.

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Open loop control

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Feed forward with experience. Discrete movement, automated movement, anticipation

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Central pattern generator

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Prewired patterns. Spine produces movement without feedback from limbs or input from brain. Can be modified by the brain. Ex: gait, balance reaction

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Clinical test for sensory interaction in balance

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Test balance with eyes open/closed, standing on the floor and foam pad. Dome on head test.

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Movement speed

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Slow movement: feedback is better. Fast movement: feedforward is better.

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Functional reach test

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Discrete movement. Closed environment. KR/KP.

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Motor programs in LBP

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Transverse abdominis onset prior to erector spinae

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Low back pain treatment

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1st month: manipulation and medication (acute symptoms)

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Low back pain (LBP)

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Loss of physiological motion or function. Delayed activation of Transverse abdominis in people with low back pain. Treatment: abdominal draw in maneuver, abdominal bracing exercise

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Thrust technique

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Dependent on rate of force and independent of treatment effect

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Manipulation

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Discrete. Short term pain relief.

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Mobilization

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Serial

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Motor programs with low back pain: top down

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More feedforward, more spinal flexion

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Motor programs with low back pain: bottom up

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Neutral spin position. Engage hip/pelvic muscles

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Lx lab: Phasic muscles

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Outer muscles: Paraspinals, rectus abdominis. Strength, direction and force dependent. Overfire. Type II fibers.

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Lx lab: Tonic muscles

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Inner muscles: Multifidus, transversus abdominis. independent of direction and force applied. Type I fibers. Endurance. Underfire.

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Lx lab: with injury

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Delayed muscle recruitment. Loss of co-activation of inner and outer units. With pain, will have increased rectus abdominis firing and inner units aren't able to coactivate (low trasversus abdominis activation), feedforward (anticipatory postural control) is disrupted.

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Lx lab: Force closure

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the right muscle activate around the trunk and pelvis and create stability

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Lx lab: Form closure

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Optimal function of bones, joints and ligaments. Men greater than women

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Lx lab: FB/KR

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Progressively less extrinsic (KR) as task becomes more functional

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Excessive guidance

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Learner is less able to develop their own error detection. Deliberate practice.

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Neuro-regulation

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Control of muscle activation patterns to generate forces that stabilize/move joints. More clinical way tying together MC/ML.

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Neurodevelopmental techniques

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Brain plasticity and neural-reorganization are promoted when we use active processes to solve motor problems.

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Lang term plasticity

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Permanent, structural change in the brain topography. Brain changes. Change in number and organization of neuronal connections

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Short term plasticity

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Increase strength of synaptic connections. Change in performance.

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Potentiation

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Increased stimuli leads to greater post synaptic response leads to synaptic efficiency which results in neural level learning and memory

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Spatial summation

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Multiple inputs at neuron simultaneously

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Temporal summation

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Multiple inputs at neuron occurs close together

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Synaptogenesis

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Changes in patterns of interconnections involved with learning a task

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Determinate of Neuro Rehabilitation/Plasticity

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Active and deliberate practice: Use it or lose it. Specificity (Ex: sport specific) and repetition

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Contextual interference and performance-learning paradox

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More interference makes the task harder

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Sequence

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Muscle activation in correct order

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Magnitude

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Alter muscle force during movement

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Timing

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Muscle activation/inactivation in correct order

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Coordination

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Agonist/antagonist synergy

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Speed-Accuracy trade-offs

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Trade speed in order to achieve greater accuracy and vice versa.

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Spatial speed-accuracy trade off

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Fitt's law: increase difficulty should see decreases in movement speed (increase in movement time). Inverse relationship between task difficulty and movement time/speed.

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Temporal speed-accuracy trade off

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Faster movements are MORE consistent than slower movement (less time to make errors). More temporal stability leads to less variability in movement time. Tasks requiring anticipation. Ex: baseball swing

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Dynamic systems

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Model to describe coordinated movement. The outcome of interest is influenced by the interaction of the task, environment and individual learner. Addresses the degrees of freedom problem.

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Degrees of freedom

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Body has >100 degrees of freedom.

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Freezing

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A constaint on action that reduces movement of the degrees of freedom

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Freeing

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A constraint of action that increases degrees of freedom

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Coordinated

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A constraint of action that releases all degrees of freedom

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Haken, Kelso, & Bunz (HKB) model

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Self-organization theory. At slower speeds: in-phase and anti-phase movements remain stable. At higher speeds: in-phase movements are stable while anti-phase movements destabilize to move towards in-phase pattern.

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Perception-action framework

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Theory for motor learning that action and perception are linked and relay information from the environment.

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Affordance

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Reciprocal relationship between us and our environment. Ex: walking speed constraints

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The "Black Box"

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Input comes in, gets processed by the human and the motor output occurs

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Information

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Comes from the environment and sense organs

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Storage

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Memory: access additional information. Subject to processing speed

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Processing

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Perception and decision making. Action.

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Simple decision making

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~2 conscious calculations per second

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Iceberg analogy

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Conscious mind processes ±7 bits of info every second. Subconscious mind processes ±140 bits of info per second and regulates 75% of our daily activity

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Reaction time

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Input occurs. Reaction time defined as stimulus identification, response selection then response programming. Output occurs.

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Shorter reaction time

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Clarity, intensity and combined stimuli shorten reaction time

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Longer reaction time

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Visual cues compared to auditory or tactile lengthen reaction time

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Response time

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=reaction time (RT) + movement time (MT)

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Uncertainty

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As stimulus increases, reaction time decreases

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Response programing

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How we organize and initiate a response after a response is selected during reaction time. Can allow us to communicate with the environment. Retrieve the program from memory, prep the motor system (feedforward) then initiate the movement.

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Reaction time determinates

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Age: faster rate of decline >70 Movement complexity

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Anticipation

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If advance information is available, stimulus identification proceeds directly to response programming and bypasses response selection

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Short term memory

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Storage duration of 1-60 seconds, abstract coding, capacity of 7±2

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Long term memory

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Limitless storage duration, very abstract coding, and limitless capacity

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Short term sensory store

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Storage duration of <1 second, very literal coding , limitless capacity

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Attention

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Single channel, filter theories. Has a fixed capacity for info processing. The "bottle neck": limits the amount of information to be processed (serial processing)

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Flexible allocation of capacity

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Capacity for attention changes as task requirements change. Parallel processing.

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Multiple-resource theories

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Parallel processing. Multiple 'pools' of attention resources

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Cocktail party problem

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Trying to talk to friends at a party but hear your name across the room causes a shift of attention

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Stroop effect

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When the name of a color is printed in a color not denotes by the word. Slows reaction time.

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Attention during movement

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Fine tunes movement. Dual task: higher incidence of falls in the elderly. Action-centered interference: distracting environment playing a role in executing a movement

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Attention is...

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Limited in capacity. -Selective -Effortful (pupil diameter, HR) -Interference (Structural, capacity) -Focused

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Internal focus of attention

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Sensory: "how does it feel?". Benefits the novice learner

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External focus of attention

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Environmental cues, expected movement outcome. Benefits the skilled performer.

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Yerkes-Dodson Law

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Arousal level versus performance. Performance is best at a moderate arousal level.

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