Learning & Motivation – Flashcards
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5 Criteria to judge scientific theories
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1. Testability (Falsifiability) 2. Simplicity 3. Generality 4. Fruitfulness 5. Agreement with the Data
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acquisition phase
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period which subject is acquiring new skill
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Testability (Falsifiability)
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A theory should make unambiguous predictions that can be tested against the facts. criterion often called falsifiability. Generally agreed that a good theory is one that could, in principle, be proven wrong. A scientific theory must make definite predictions because if there is room for reinterpretation and modification of the predictions after data is collected, any result can be explained by the theory.
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Simplicity
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If 2 theories are equal in ability to account for a body of data, the theory that does so with smaller # of hypothetical construct & assumptions is preferred.
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Generality
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Theories that deal with more phenomena, with greater range of observations, are usually judged to be better than theories of a more restricted scope. Broad generality is strength of biorhythm theory. The ability to generalize findings is important. External validity.
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Fruitfulness
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An important property of a scientific theory is the ability to stimulate further research and further thinking about a topic. A theory may eventually prove to be incorrect or limited but serves a useful function if it provokes new studies that otherwise would not have been done. Oftentimes, an experiment to test 1 theory will uncover a new phenomenon that the theory cannot explain. New info can pave the way for the development of a more sophisticated theory.
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Agreement with the Data
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The final criterion for judging scientific theories:how well it coincides with the facts. If prediction clearly contradicts well-established facts, it must be either modified or discarded.
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How might a behaviorist justify use of animals in research?
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1. Placebo/expectancy effect minimized w/animal subjects. In many studies animal are not aware they are being studied. Also unlikely animal will be motivated to please/displease experimenter. 2. Convenience. species most commonly used are easy and cheap to care for, animals of a specific age & sex can be obtained in quantities needed. Once animals obtained, participation is as regular as the experimenter's. 3. Biggest advantage of domesticated animal subjects: their environment can be controlled to greater extent than possible with wild animals or humans. 4. Comparative simplicity to allow better chance of discovering basic principles of learning examining creatures less intelligent and complex.
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Biased sample
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A sample that is not representative of the population from which it is selected.
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placebo effect
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A change in a participant's illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment also called subject effect or expectation effect
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double-blind procedure
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When neither subject nor person conducting experiment knows whether subject is in the control group or the experimental group. Used to avoid placebo/experimenter effect.
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inferential statistics
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statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions
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2 salient characteristics of Behavioral approach
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1. heavy reliance on animal subjects 2. emphasis on external events (environmental stimuli and overt behaviors) and reluctance to speculate about processes inside the organism.
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Domesticated animal subjects
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When animals are bred and raised in the lab, their environments can be constructed to ensure they have no contact w/objects or events similar to those they will encounter in an experiment.
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What assumption can behaviorist make about the relationship between humans and other species?
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By studying simple animals in an controlled environemnt, researchers may have a better chance of discovering basic principles of learning. Assumption is that although humans differ from animals in some respect, they are also similar in some respects, and it is these commonalities that can be investigated with animal subjects.
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Skinner: 2 problems with Intervening Variables in a psychological theory.
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1. intervening variable is unnecessary because it does not improve our ability to predict a subject (such as a rat) behavior-we can do this simply by knowing hours of deprivation 2. The addition of intervening variable needlessly complicates our theory. -also argues that use of intervening variable such as thirst is dangerous, can fool us into thinking we have found causation of behavior when actually talking about a hypothetical/unobservable entity.
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When simplicity requires intervening variable
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Miller: criticized Skinner's position that intervening variables are not desirable Argued intervening variables often useful when several independent and dependent variables are involved to simplify a process that would otherwise be complicated. Miller brought up how "thirst" could be an intervening variable that would cut the 9 relationships between the IV and DV to 6 relationships if the intervening variable was included. argued that the simplified theory is superior because its more parsimonious.
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intervening variables
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Intervening variables are used to predict the relationship between IV and DV in scientific theories. Intervening variables are purely theoretical concepts that cannot be directly observed.
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Descartes on Voluntary behavior
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divided into 2 groups: Voluntary behavior governed by reason (the mind). Source was nonmechanical and nonphysical. domain of human action-Voluntary action-unique to humans. the mind is aware of reflex actions, though it can't control these actions, it had complete control over nonreflex actions. Actions of mind not governed by physical laws by governed by reason.
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Descartes on Involuntary behavior
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divided into 2 groups: Involuntary behavior was purely mechanical, just as motion of inanimate objects was mechanical. Conceptual machine known as Reflex Arc. -exp. child touch hot flame, set in motion nerve in finger. Motion transmitted to brain where "animal spirits" released. Spirit travels down the nerve, swelling muscles in the fingers, causing them to pulled back. His analogy was to mechanism causing a bell at 1 end to ring by tugging on the other end of the rope.
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Descartes (French): Reflex Arc
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For Descartes, the Reflex Arc accounted for all the behavior of Nonhuman Animals, and the Involuntary behavior of Humans. There are countless reflexes in all organisms. The most familiar in humans are the knee jerk and eyeblink.
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Hobbes (British) view of Reflex Arc?
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Hobbs argued for a more thoroughgoing mechanism that would not exclude any aspect of human action (compared to Descartes). Whether reasons were good/bad, it was human nature. Hobbes extended the mechanical views of Descartes to all human action. -like Descartes, viewed voluntary actions as the province of the mind -Unlike Descartes's view, the activities of the mind could themselves be explained by mechanical laws.
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Hobbes: Endeavours
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Endeavours are unobservable, yet physical and behave in the same lawlike as reflexes. Observable actions originated in incipient motions in the mind called "endeavours" Endeavours occurred in the service of a set of human motives concerned w/the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
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British Empiricism (also known as Associationism)
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A philosophical tradition that ultimate source of knowledge is experience. The mind is not formed but shaped by experience. Leading figures like Locke & Hume. The principle of association was contiguity: 2 experiences that occurred closely together in time were likely to be associated."
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British Empiricism: Sensory experience
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Sensory experience was the source of of ALL knowledge for British Empiricism /Associationist. People born as blank slate, building up knowledge of world by accumulating bits of sensory info as we age.
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Associationists factors that influence formation of association
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Thomas Brown identified factors that influence associations: 1. intensity of sensations 2. similarity of sensations 3. recency of pairing 4. frequency of pairing 5. # of association which sensations associated also involved 5. similarity of association to be formed to other (past associations)
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British Empiricism view on knowledge not directly given
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Would say in thay past subject had direct experience. Experiences occurred closely together in time and have occurred repeatedly. the 2 features of experience, temporal contiguity and repetition, allows subject to associate site of stimulus (such as a closed book) w/it's closed contents. With enough repetition, sight of book is compounded out of a history of individual sensory impressions.
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Contiguity (Association)
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Factors that determine when & how association formed & how powerful. Basic principle was contiguity: 2 experiences that occurred closely together in time were likely to be associated."
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Associationism: Descartes & Hobbes
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Descartes: some human action lawlike and mechanical. Hobbes: ALL human action was lawlike and mechanical. -Associationist began to develop laws. that the mind was blank slate shaped through experience & in experience, simple elements of knowledge were built, brick by brick into complex ideas. -These 2 aspects of associationism have dominated behavior theory for most of its history.
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Darwin: "3 Crucial elements"
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1. variations among members of a species, not all identical 2. some mechanism of transmission of important characteristics from parent to offspring 3. a process of natural selection that seemed to increase over time the # of members of a species with characteristics that enhanced their chances of survival
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Natural Selection
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Darwin argued variation among species was not purposeful & intelligent but random. Natural selection ensured that only the useful individual variations would come, over generations, to characterize the species and that it was nature's exercise of intelligence.
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Darwin's theory implication on humans (added credibility to Hobbes) 6 step (steps 1-4)
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Might begin scientific investigation that an explanation of human action would look something like this: 1. a newborn is a collection of simple reflexes. simple stimuli in brain, trigger simple responses 2. as gain experience, diff. stimuli associated with each other. 3. begin to trigger each others reflexes. Milk may trigger sucking, etc. 4. as development continues, more stimuli associated with each others, develop complex sensory experience
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Darwin's theory implication on humans (added credibility to Hobbes) 6 step (steps 5-6)
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5. of all reflexes, ONLY some will produce consequences that have Survival Value (are pleasurable). Its these reflexes alone that remain in repertoire of developing organism 6. thus, normal adult may be viewed as someone who has learned to recognize complex stimuli by building up associations of simple ones and learned to engage in complex sequences of behavior by chaining together simple reflexes.
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Pavlov's methodological contribution to science
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Pavlov's discoveries opened the way for an objective science of behavior (beginning of modern behavior theory). Discovered that objects in the environment that reliably appeared just prior to delivery of food would cause the dogs to salivate. Reflex connection between lab coat & salivation had to be learned/conditioned. a window to the laws of the mind. Clear that while inborn reflexes formed significant part of the behavior of all organisms, a more significant portion could not be inborn. Pavlov study of "conditioned reflexes" was the study of the laws of association of ideas. (beginning of classical conditioning)
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Law of Effect: Thorndike
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The Law of effects tells us that if some of variations happens to be followed closely in time by a pleasurable reward, they are strengthened & more likely to reoccur. -If they are not rewarded, they are weakened. -Overtime, activities that produce rewards get selected and continue to occur in the future.
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Who formulated the Law of Effect
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Thorndike formulated the Law of effect to explain the goal-directed feature of behavior (following Spencer). That behavior was not a collection of simple reflexes, & organism do not work the way machines do. Suggest if cats are not machines in cages, they aren't in nature, and people, who are more infinitely more flexible, could not possibly be machines, no matter how complexly constructed. Argued that behavior occurs in a random, trial-&-error fashion, varying from moment to moment.
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Working definition of Learning (lecture)
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Relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience.
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Relatively permanent (lecture)
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Relatively permanent is critical, excludes as instances of learning changes in behavior that are temporary, transitory Example: Direct relationship between amount of time rat deprive of food and subject activity, the longer without food, the more active it becomes. To a point level of relationship. The increase in level of activity not explained as learning because its only a temporary increase. Would not explain it in terms of learning. *When learning occurs, behavior changes, the changes in behavior is enduring
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Theoretical definition of Learning (lecture)
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Historically, efforts of many experimental psychologists have focus on associative learning. From theoretical vantage, learning, often view as 'association between stimuli and some response" S → S, example lightening is a stimulus, when you see it, expect to hear thunder S→ R, example, when you see lightening, comprise of vision and auditory, you respond by seeking shelter
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Learning (H&O ch.1)
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Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in "behavioral potentiality" that occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Kimble's) 1. learning is indexed by change in behavior: observable 2. behavioral change relatively permanent: NOT transitory nor fixed 3. change need not occur immediately following learning experience (may be potential to act differently) 4. change in behavior must result from experience/practice
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Learning in psychology
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in psychology, we study behavior to make inferences concerning the process believed to be cause of behavioral changes we observe. In this case, that process is learning! most agree learning can't be directly studied, nature can only be inferred from changes in behavior. except for Skinnerians who believe that behavioral changes are learning & no further process needs to be inferred, most learning theorist look on learning as a process that mediates behavior.
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Relatively permanent (H&O ch.1)
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Learning lingers until forgetting takes place over time or until new learning displaces old learning. Temporary learning modify behavior, BUT with learning modification, it is relatively permanent.
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Performance (H&O ch.1)
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Learning refers to a change in behavior potentiality and Performance refers to the translation of this potentiality into behavior. What we learned may not be used immediately, such as a football player learning to play a position for weeks but may not translate that until game time.
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Reflex (H&O ch.1)
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not all behavior is learned. much of simple behavior is reflexive. A Relex can be defined as an unlearned response in reaction to a specific class of stimuli. exp. sneezing in response to tickling, producing a sudden knee jerk when your knee is tapped sharply
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Instinct (H&O ch.1)
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Complex behavior can also be unlearned. When complex behavior patterns are genetically determined, referred to as examples of instinct. such hibernation and mating behavior we refer to complex behavior pattens as instincts.
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Species-typical behavior (H&O ch.1)
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Species-typical (species) behavior refers to complex, unlearned, and relatively unmodifiable behavior patterns engaged in by a certain species of animal under certain circumstances. exp. cuckoo birds who lay their eggs in other birds' nest, fostered by other birds or squirrels and nut-burying
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Species-typical behavior (term preference)
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Species-typical behavior is preferred because it is more descriptive and because the term "instinctive" was already offered as an explanation of behavior
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Classical Conditioning procedure
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1. stimulus is presented that will cause a natural/automatic response (US). The automatic reaction is the (UR). such as food causes salivation 2. a neutral stimulus (CS) is presented to organism just prior to presentation of the US 3. after the CS and US are paired a # of times, with the CS always proceeding the US, the CS alone can cause a CR in classical conditioning, the US is called reinforcement since the entire conditioning procedure depends on it. an organism also has no control over reinforcement. reinforcement is not contingent on any overt response made.
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appetitive instrumental conditioning
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in instrumental learning, the organism must act in a certain way before it is reinforced; reinforcement is contingent on the organism's behavior
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escape conditioning
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special kind of instrumental conditioning exp. rat in Skinner box w/electrified grid activated with the lever connected to an on/off switch. as rat leaps around from shock, it will accidentally hit the lever & terminate shock. lever pressing is conditioned behavior, & termination of shock is reinforcement.
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avoidance conditioning
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special kind of instrumental conditioning exp. Skinner box activated at intervals with signal such as light. set up to precede onset of shock by 5 sec. rat learns to associate light with onset of shock and will press lever to avoid shock when light comes on. the arrangement in which an organism can avoid an aversive stimulus by performing some appropriate response is avoidance conditioning.
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homeostatic mechanisms
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through evolutionary past, our bodies have developed the capacity to respond automatically to certain needs. Automatic adjustments are called homeostatic mechanisms because their function is to maintain a physiological equilibrium, or homeostasis. in addition we are also born with reflexes that facilitates survival.
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learning process & survival
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for a species to survive it must satisfy its needs for things such as food, water, sex. to do so, it must interact with the environment. No organism would survive long if it doesn't learn which environmental objects could be used to satisfy its basic needs. nor could it survive if it could not learn which environmental objects were safe and which were dangerous
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Molar behavior
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The chief charasteristic of molar behavior is that it is purposive, always directed toward some goal. For Tolman, molar behavior purposive behavior patterns: Gestalten exp. rat running in maze, cat getting out of puzzle box, man driving home to dinner, etc
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Process of Learning: Tolman
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Learning is a process of discovering what leads to what in the environment. For this reason, Tolman was called an S-S rather than an S-R theorist. Learning was an ongoing process that required no motivation. Motivation is important to this theory because it determines what aspect of the environment would be attended to by the organism. exp. we learn that when its 5pm, dinner will soon follow.
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Latent learning
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Latent is learning that is not translated into performance. Learning remains dormant for a considerable length of time before its manifested in behavior. Concept of Latent Learning was important to Tolman.
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Latent Learning experiment: Tolman & Honzik
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to demonstrate concept of latent learning, Tolman and Honzik 1930 ran 3 groups of rats learning to solve a maze. -group1:not reinforced for correctly traversing the maze -group2:always reinforced -group3: not reinforced until the 11th day of the experiment (which was of greatest interest to Tolman)
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Theory of Latent Learning: Tolman
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Theory of latent learning predicted in the rat/maze study that group 3 would be learning the maze just as much as the group that was regularly reinforced and that when reinforcement was introduced on the 11th day, this group would soon perform as well as the group that had been continually reinforced (group2)
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Findings on Latent Learning experiment/Tolman & Honzik
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found on rat/maze study: 1. slight improvement in performance even in group never receiving reinforcement 2. reinforcement group showed steady improvement throughout the 17th days of the experiment 3. when reinforcement introduced on the 11th day to the group not previously reinforced, their performance vastly improved. They performed even better than the group that had been continuously reinforced. Tolman took the results to support his contention that Reinforcement was a Performance Variable and NOT a Learning Variable
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Reinforcement Expectancy: Tolman
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argued that when we learn, we come to know the "lay of the land." certain events follows other events. * S-R theorist expect reinforcers in learning to not disrupt behavior as long as quantity of reinforcement isn't changed drastically. *Tolman predicted that if reinforcers were changed, behavior would change since in Reinforcement Expectancy, a particular reinforcer becomes a part of what's expected.
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Is Reinforcement a learning or performance variable?/ Tolman
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reinforcement for Tolman was a performance variable and not a learning variable. *because in his 3 group rat/maze experiment: the rats consistently reinforced throughout the experiment was out performed by the group that was not reinforced until the 11th day. * that learning occurs through observation & independent of reinforcement
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Experiment 1 (1946): Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish
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Maintained that animals learn where they are. did exp. on 2 groups of rats *group1: no matter what point they started, at S1 or S2, they had to turn in the same direction to be reinforced. Response learning group *group2:always fed at same place. if member started at S1, had to turn left to be reinforced, if started at S2 had to turn right. Place learning group animals given 6 trials a day for 12 days. criterion for learning was 10 successive errorless trials. at the end, only 3 of the8 rats in response learning group reached criterion, all rats in 2nd group did
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Experiment 2: Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish
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(Exp. 2) 1. animals 1st trained in apparatus 2. animals had to learn to follow route A-G, H indicates place where 5 watt bulb located (only lighting in room for experiment) 3. after preliminary training, appratus was removed and replaced with new appratus 4. path animals 1st trained in now blocked, but they could choose among 18 alternative paths. 5. found that most frequently picked ally was 6, pointing directly to where goal was during 1st phase. alleys closest to original alley only infrequently chosen. the 1st pathway, the 1 chosen w/the 2nd greatest frequency was the ally pointing to the place in the room where animals had ben fed in their home cages.
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Place learning group (experiment 1: Toleman)
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The place learning rats solved their problem faster than the response learners. Appeared it was more natural for animals to learn places than specific responses, and results taken to support Toleman's theory.
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Experiment 2 result cont: Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish
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looks as if animals responding in terms of where something was rather than in terms of specific responses.
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Control systems theory
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Control system theory provides a general framework for analyzing a wide range of goal directed systems
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comparator/ control systems theory
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The thermostat is an example of a fundamental concept in control systems theory. A comparator receives 2 types as input: reference input and actual input. any comparator has rules it follows to determine, based on current actual input and reference input what its output will be. in the case of a thermostat, output is an on/off command to the furnace, which is an example of an action system
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reference input/ control systems theory
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the reference input is often not a physical entity but a conceptual one, such as the temperature that, when reached, will be just enough to open the switch and stop the furnace
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actual input/ control systems theory
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the actual input measures some actual physical characteristic of the present environment such as the air temperature in the vicinity of the thermal stat
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action system
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Any comparator has rules it follows to determine based on current actual input and reference input what its output will be. example, rules that the thermostat follow might be: 1. it furnishes off and air temperature becomes 1° lower than reference input, turn on furnace 2. if furnace is on and air temperature becomes 1° higher then reference input, turn off furnace with a setting of 65°F, these rules would keep the air temperature between 64°F and 66 to Greece. I
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6 important concepts of control systems theory
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1. comparator 2. reference input 3. actual input 4. action system 5. output 6. disturbance
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output/ control systems theory
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a product of the action system is simply called the output- the output of the action system feeds back and affects the actual input to the comparator
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disturbance/ control systems theory
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The output of action system (warm air) & actual input to the comparator (air temperature) seems closely related, may ask why 2 separate terms to describe them. -Reason is, close relationship doesn't always exist between output of action system and actual input; other factors can affect the actual input. -One example is "Disturbance" such as a window open on a cold day will also affect the air temperature near the thermostat.
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spinal reflex arc
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the motor neuron's have cell bodies within the spinal cord, their axons exit through the front of the spinal cord, travel back down the arm, and synopsis with individual muscle fibers in the arms. When excited, the muscle fibers contract, thereby producing response. -The physiology of this reflex is called the spinal reflex arc, after the shape of the path of neuronal excitation
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spinal reflex arc/ feedback
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within the muscles of the arm are structures called "stretch receptors" which serve as the comparators of the feedback system to the spinal reflex arc.
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reflex
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a reflex is a stereotyped pattern of movement of a part of the body that can be reliably elicited by presenting the appropriate stimulus. as with all reflexes, the patellar reflex involves an innate connection between a stimulus and a response. example knee-jerk reflex
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Interneurons/ reflexes
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in the flexion reflex, 1 or more small neurons called interneurons separate the sensory neurons from motor neuron's.
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stretch receptors/ spinal reflex arc
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The stretch receptors compare: 1. The goal or reference input-the commands sent from the motor neurons to the muscle fibers telling them to contract 2. the actual amounts that the muscles have contracted
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stretch receptors (comparators)
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just because a motor neuron sends a command to the muscle does not guarantee the arm is safely withdrawn. There might be a disturbance-in the extraction that impedes movement of the arm. if muscles don't contract sufficiently for any reason, stretch receptors begin to stimulate motorneurons, which in turn stimulate muscle fibers more vigorously, simulation continues until contraction is complete.
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summary of spinal reflex arc
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in short, the comparators (stretch receptors) continue to stimulate the action system (the motorneurons and muscle fibers) until the goal ( a successful muscle contraction) is achieved. this analysis of the spinal reflex arc shows that feedback can play a crucial role in even the simplest reflexive behavior
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Tropism
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a tropism is a movement or change in orientation of the entire animal. 1st to steady tropism was Jacques Loeb who said that in "tropisms" forced movements to suggest that no intelligence, will, or choice was involved later researchers grouped tropism is into 2 major categories: 1. Kineses (plural of Kinesis) 2. taxes (plural of taxis)
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Kinesis/ tropisms and orientation
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What distinguishes a kinesis from a taxis is that in kinesis, the direction of the movement is random in relation to a stimulus. A frequently cited example of a kinesis is the humidity-seeking behavior of the wood louse. this creature though small resembles an insect spends most of its time under a rock or log in the forest. must remain in humid areas in order to survive. see study
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Fraenkel & Gunn: Wood Louse study
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wood lice in center of chamber, moist air on one end/ dry on other. Found that the lice kept walking when in dry end/frequently stopped for long periods in moist.Result, tended to congregate in moist end Didn't directly head toward moist area or away from dry area, because had no means of sensing the humidity of the distant location, only sense humidity of present location. exp. of feedback system. behavior tells us it must have a comparator that detects actual input and compares it to reference input. *The action system in creature's locomotion system is motor neurons, muscles, and legs that allow it to move about. *locomotion is the output of this action system but no guarantee locomotion will lead to goal of high humidity.
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Taxes/ tropism and orientation
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unlike kinesis, in taxis the direction of movement bears some relationship to the locomotion of the stimulus. exp. of a taxis, a maggots movement away from any bright light source.
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fixed action pattern/ sequences of behavior
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the ethological term fixed action pattern used to describe some behavioral consequences. a fixed action patterns has the following characteristics: 1. a part of repertoire of all members of the species, may be unique to that species 2. suitable experiments have confirmed animal's ability to perform behavior not result of prior learning experience 3. in sequence of behavior, behaviors occur in rigid order regardless of whether appropriate in a particular context; once a fixed action patterns is initiated it will continue to completion without further support from environmental stimuli example. The nut-burying behavior of squirrels in the cage
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sign stimulus/ sequences of behavior
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*sign stimulus is a fairly specific stimulus to initiate a fixed action patterns. In the case of the squirrel, the signed stimulus is clearly the not *for other fixed action patterns, systematic investigation revealed features of the stimulus are important and which are irrelevant. *In humans, found evidence that contagious yawning is a fixed action patterns that may occur if we see the entire face of the dawning person more surprising findings is that sometimes an unrealistic model can elicit a stronger response than the actual signs stimulus itself
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reaction chain/ sequences of behavior
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Whereas fixed action patterns continue until completion one started. *in a "reaction chain" the progression from one behavior to the next depends on the presence of an appropriate external stimulus. *If stimulus is not present, the chain of behavior will be interrupted. *unlike behaviors of fixed action patterns, reaction chain do not always occur in a complete sequence. Sequence can stop at any point if stimulus required for the next step is not forthcoming
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innate human abilities
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though humans have a variety of reflexes, plus a few fixed action patterns and other inborn behaviors, these innate responses certainly constitute a small portion of what we do because learning plays a large role in human behavior, philosophers such as the British Empiricist have maintained that all human behavior is based on prior learning. Locke:Tabula Rasa or blank slate and Watson.
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innate human abilities
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another aspect of human behavior that may be innate is the range of emotions people experience, how reflected in facial expression, and how others interpret expression. Darwin 1st proposed That different emotions may have evolve because it helps creatures survived, gestures and facial expressions of emotion are important means of social communication all members of a species.
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Eckman's experiments on facial expressions
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Ekman showed people from many different cultures photographs of faces that depicted 6 different emotions ( happy, discuss, surprise, sadness, anger, and fear) asked them to classify emotion of person in photograph. *Everyone showed a high degree of accuracy in classifying emotions shown regardless of where they were from.
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sign stimulus: important features to elicit response
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systematic investigation revealed features of the stimulus are important and which are relevant. signed stimulus is often a simple specific detail; as a result, a seemingly poor imitation of the natural sign stimulus can elicit a fixed action pattern
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human universals/ innate human abilities and predispositions
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Donald Brown compiled a list list of human universals- ability & behaviors found in all known human cultures. Contains 400 items, includes some very specific behaviors such as dance, music, death rituals, hygienic care, jokes, and folklore, as well as major characteristics such as marriage, inheritance rules, tool making, took use, government, sanctions for crimes, and division of labor.
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Habituation
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habituation is defined as a decrease in the strength of the response after repeated presentation of the stimulus that elicits the response. In principle, any elicited response can exhibit habituation, but in practice, habituation is most evident in the body's automatic responses to new and sudden stimuli a important characteristic of habituation which distinguishes it from both sensory adaptation & muscular fatigue is that it is stimulus specific. *An organism who is unable to habituate To insignificant Stimuli will probably have a difficult time attending to more important stimuli. *some evidence show rate of habituation in human infants is correlated with mental abilities later in life.
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orienting response
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another behavior that often displays habituation is the orienting response. *If new sight/sound presented, organism may stop its current activity, and turn in direction of the stimulus. *If stimulus is presented repeatedly but is of no consequence, the orienting response will disappear. *Therefore organisms will exhibit an orienting response to a novel stimulus, and they will both exhibit habituation of the orienting response if same stimulus is presented many times
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6 general principles of habituation
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1. Course of the situation. 2. effects of time 3. relearning effects 4. effects of stimulus intensity 5. effects of overlearning 6. stimulus generalization
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course of the situation/ general principle of habituation 1
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habituation of the response occurs whenever stimulus is repeatedly presented. Decrements in responding from trial to trial are large at 1st but progressively smaller as the habituation precedes
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effects of time/general principle of habituation 2
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If after habituation stimulus is withheld for some period of time, the responsible recover. recovery depends on the amount of time that elapses. *can say habituation is forgotten as time passes (Ebbinghus).
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effects of stimulus intensity/general principle of habituation 4
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we've seen that a reflexive responses frequently stronger than a more intense stimulus. Such a response is also more resistant to habituation. Habituation precedes more rapidly with a weak stimuli, and if stimulus is very intense, there may be no habituation at all
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effects of overlearning/general principle of habituation 5
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Learning can occur at times when there is no longer any change in observable behavior. Thompson and Spencer called this below 0 habituation because it occurs at a time when there is no observable response to the stimulus.
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Stimulus generalization/general principle of habituation 6: Spencer
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transfer of habituation from one stimulus to new but similar stimulus is called generalization. Example if on 3rd evening sounds of gunfire are somewhat different, organism may have little difficulty ignoring the sounds. *Amount of generalization depends on degree of similarity between stimuli, and it is always the subject, not the experimenter, who is the ultimate judge of similarity.
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Relearning effects/ general principles of habituation 3
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Where as habituation may disappear over a long time interval, it should proceed more rapidly in a 2nd series of stimulus presentation. In further series of stimulus presentation, habituation should occur progressively more quickly. There are savings from previous periods of habituation. Example. Organisms initial startle response to sound of gunfire on 2nd evening might be almost as large as the 1st evening response but should disappear more quickly the 2nd time
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Simple systems approach/physiological mechanisms of habituation
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to strategy of studying fairly primitive creatures simple creatures, which have nervous systems that are smaller and less come plaques example. Aplysia
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study of Aplysia: simple creatures
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Kandel and colleagues have spent several decades studying the behavior and nervous system of Aplysia. they chose this animal because its nervous system is relatively simple-contains only a few thousand new runs, compared to billions in mammals.
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Advantage of using simple organisms: learning
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Because of the comparative simplicity of Aplysia's neural networks, researchers are able to pinpoint neural changes responsible for habituation & begin examining chemical processes involved. Research shows that some cases, learning depends on changes at very specific neural locations, not on widespread changes in many parts of the nervous system. Also shows that learning involves no anatomical changes, such as growth of new axons, but merely changes in the effectiveness of already established connections between neurons
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disadvantages of simple organisms: learning
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because the nervous system of a typical mammal is more complex then that of simple organisms such a Aplysia, it's more difficult to identify individual nuance that undergo changes during habituation to a stimulus and makes it hard to generalize findings in simple organisms to complex organisms such as mammals.
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Temporal pattern of an emotional response: opponent-process theory of Solomon and Corbit
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according to Solomon and Corbit, 1. onset of a stimulus produces sudden appearance of an emotional reaction, which quickly reaches a peak of intensity. 2. response gradually declines to a somewhat lower level, or plateau. 3. With offset a stimulus, sudden switch to emotional after reaction opposite of the initial emotion. 4. after reaction gradually declines, and the individual's emotional state returns to a neutral state
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effects of repeated stimulation: opponent process theory of Solomon Corbit
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crucial feature: prediction of how pattern of emotional response changes w/repeated presentations of same stimulus. *States that w/repeated exposure to stimulus, primary response exhibits a sort of habituation-progressively smaller-same time marked increase in size and duration of the after-reaction. *Propose that whereas a-process doesn't change, b-process is strengthened with use & weakend with disuse. *With repeated stimulation, the b-process rises more quickly, reaches a higher maximum, and is slower to decay after the stimulus is terminated
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ability: learning
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Ability is critical to learning because when learning occurs, what changes is potential for behavior as opposed to behavior itself
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experience: learning
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Experience is critical to definition of learning because term experience disqualifies as instances of learning, changing in behavior mediate by other processes, such as maturation, innate respond tendencies. *we are only concern about changes due to experience. Example changes of radical behavior that has nothing to do with learning: tadpole , acquire ability to swim, don't learn to swim, its an innate response. Biologist would look at it in terms of maturation.
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Behavioristic Prospective of Learning
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•Learning represents acquired tendency to respond in particular way when we encounter a stimulus. • Such as when you see a red light when driving, you press the brake pedal. That's all there is from a behavioral perspective. • 1 aspect concerns, process where a stimulus invokes/elicits a response. NOTEWORTHY: psychologist who endure this behavioristic approach to learning assumes that a stimuli directly evokes a response, response is direct • Suggest that when stimulus in environment elicits response, no intervening processes.
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Cognitive Prospective of Learning
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• Slightly more complex • Views learning as acquired tendency to expect the occurrence of certain events when stimulus is encountered, then learning has occurred • Assumes expectancy influences our behavior • Expectancy is: a 2 or 3 term relationship. Important difference concerns nature of process whereby a stimulus evokes a response • Stimulus evokes cognitive response
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opponent process theory of motivation/Solomon and Corbit
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Pattern of response: 1. Peak of A (stimulus introduced, quickly rise to peak) 2. Adaptation (emotional reaction decline, remain as long as stimulus is present), 3. Steady level of A (stimulus terminates, another response develops, 4. Gives way to opposite response 5. Decay of B peak of B (reach own peak and disappears), 6. Back to baseline •Solomon and Corbit referred to response as state A • Referred to after reaction as State B Argued all emotional reaction conform to this pattern
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example of dog: opponent process theory
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Example of Solomon & Corbit study: dog in hammock, given shock 10 sec in duration, elicits reaction as terror and panic (state A), once shock terminates, emotion replaced by behavior referred to as cautious and activity (state b) This same pattern is observed regardless of stimulus that elicits it, same pattern applies occurs.
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emotional state: opponent process theory/Solomon & Corbit
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emotional state: can be observed directly or individual experiences example an emotional state is anxiety, fear, it's apparent and observable and we experience it
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processes: opponent process theory/Solomon and Corbit
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processes: contribute to states responsible for emotional states that cannot be observed directly, intervening variables. Hypothetical constructs processes referred to as a-process, b-process summing device for Solomon and Corbit's theory
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states vs. processes/ opponent process theory
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• Distinguish between emotional states and processes • Emotional state; something directly observed or experiences, exp. anxiety, can observe it and many also experience it • In contrast, processes contributes to emotional states, responsible for emotional states, processes cannot be viewed directly
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A-process (3 properties)
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A-process: • is the primary process for an emotion • aroused by a stimulus • A-process directly activated by a stimulus
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B-process (5 properties)
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opposite of A-process: 1st property: Emotional influence, quality is opposite of the A process 2nd property: Activated whenever a stimulus arouses the A-process, but B process cannot be activated directly 3rd property: B is activated before a stimulus terminate (while organism is still in state A) 4th property, B-process is sluggish (know for exam), relative to A process. B-process has a longer latency, recoups more slowing and decays more slowly. While the A process develops quickly and decays more rapidly 5th property: important, B-process is strengthen by use and weakened by disused. After many applications of a stimulus, as result of experience, intensity is greater and latency increases
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Summing device: opponent process theory
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•Integrates influence of a and b processes by summing/adding the a and b signal •3rd component, integrate (key term) by adding a and b process •When strength of state A is greater than B, organism is in state A, When B is stronger, organism is in state B •Function of a and b calculated in algebraic sum results= emotional response observed •When process B recoups, it subtracts properties of A and weakens A, when B reaches max intensity, emotional response plateaus, when stimulus terminates, process A quickly decays, process B lingers and is now stronger than A and state B develops, (tape) •Emotional response that can be observed is just the algebraic sum of a and b
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necessary conditions for learning: Guthrie
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•many postulate but only 1 law of association, law of contiguity •Contiguity is stimulus & response occurring at same time, concern with temporal contiguity, occurring together in time •When stimulus and response occurs together, association is established •in some theories, response must be follow by reward if association is to be developed, in Guthrie's theory, reinforcement isn't necessary
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S-R contiguity: Guthrie
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1. S-R contiguity is sufficient for learning; reward (reinforcement) is unnecessary 2. One trial learning postulate (all-or-none learning) stimulus gains its full associative strength on the occasion of its first pairing with a response. Asserts that when association is established, its established at full strength, not gradual process: abrupt process •Postulate is counter intuitive, performance appears to improve gradually in new skill seems inconsistent with on trial learning
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act: Guthrie
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Guthrie used term Act to refer to motor behaviors
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movement: Guthrie
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referred to Movement to molecular responses that comprise an act. An act is a motor behavior; movement is a response that comprises motor behavior. •Associations is formed between movement and stimulus not between acts and a stimulus according to Guthrie
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one trial learning: Guthrie
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more often a response is reinforced in a given situation the greater the probability of that response being made when that situation recurs. If association is between a CS and a US, Pavlov would accept the law of frequency Guthrie completely rejected the law frequency as a learning principal. He believe a stimulus pattern game its full associative strength on the occasion of its 1st pairing with a response.
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learning: Guthrie
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to Guthrie, learning was the result of contiguity between a pattern of stimulation and a response, learning was complete( Association a full strength) after only one pairing
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recency principle: one trial learning/ Guthrie
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the principles of contiguity and 1-trial learning necessitate the recency principle, states whatever we did last under a given set of circumstances will be what we will tend to do again if those circumstances are we encountered
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movement-produced stimuli: one trial learning/Guthrie
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reasserts belief in law of contiguity but felt misleading to think learned association to be exclusively between environmental stimuli and overt behavior. Solved problem by postulating existent of movement-produced stimuli, as name implies, caused by the movements of the body cimportant fact about movement-produced stimulus is responses can be conditioned to them. after response has been initiated by an external stimulus, the body can produce the stimulus for the next response and that response can furnish stimulus for the next and so on
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role of practice in learning: Guthrie
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•Practice afford opportunity for all movements to be connected to all elements that comprises it * learning does not bring about proficiency at a skill. It takes time and practice for all the necessary associations to be made * just as an act is made up of many movements, a skill is made up of many acts. Thus learning a skill such as playing golf consists of learning thousands of associations between specific stimuli in specific movements.
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role of reward/ reinforcement: Guthrie
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•Reward influences, determines what is learning as opposed to whether learning occurs •Reward is unnecessary for learning •But reward influences what is learned as opposed to whether learning is occur •Reward serves to reserves or protects existing stimulus response association by changing association with reward and not original situation; reward simply influence what is learned
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forgetting: Guthrie
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Not only does learning occur in 1-trial but so does forgetting. All forgetting occurs by causing an alternative response to occur in the presence of the stimulus pattern. After a stimulus pattern results in the alternative response, that stimulus patterns will thereafter tend to bring about the new response. *Thus all forgetting must involve new learning.
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retroactive inhibition: forgetting/ Guthrie
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retroactive inhibition refers to the fact that old learning is interfered with I knew learning.
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3 roles of Drive (D) in Hull's theory: systematic behavior theory
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1. Without Drive, no learning (necessary for learning) •Reinforcement necessary for learning, drive reduction is mechanism for reinforcement, without drive, no drive reduction, ergo, no learning 2. Without Drive, no response (drive activates habit strength (sHr) into reaction potential) •If no drive (D) VALUE is 0 & no positive reaction potential, fails to activate tendency to increase likelihood of response, therefore no response occurs •Activates habit strength to reaction potential 3.Drive guide and direct behavior serving as discriminative cues •Rat deprived on some days of food, other day's water. On days hungry, reinforced for turning left with food. On days thirsty, reinforce turning right with water How possible? Drive guides and determines our behavior with cue.
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fractional anticipatory goal response: Hull
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•rG to denote fractional anticipatory goal response/antedating goal response •Whatever response subject makes upon arriving at its goal Exp. train rat to find way from start to goal, has to decide whether to turn left or right, regardless of maze, if reinforced with food, goal response would be to consume food •Hull believes that rG - sG has stimulus properties/consequences of a fractional antedating goal response
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Fractional goal response: Hull
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Fractional goal response is a component of a goal response when it receives rewards, such as picking up the food, biting the food, chewing the food, and swallowing the food.
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Fractional anticipatory: Hull
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Fractional anticipatory, some component of goal response subject emits prior to arriving at its goal. exp. rat salivate before arriving at its goal
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Primarily reinforcers: Hull
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Primarily reinforcers: some event that is intrinsically reinforcing. 4 common exp. food, fluids, sex, and company of others * primary reinforcement, must involve need satisfaction, or what Hull called drive reduction
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Conditioned reinforcer: Hull
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Also known as Secondary Reinforcer, a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties by virtual of it association with a primary reinforcer. Might say it is because of classical conditioning by being paired with a primary reinforcer. exp. currency/money is a secondary reinforcer. We associate money with primary reinforcer such as being used to buy food. secondary reinforcer following a response will also increase the strength of association between the response and stimulus with which it was contiguous.
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habit strength: Hull
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Habit Strength is one of HULL'S most important concept refers to strength of association between stimulus and some response according to Hull •in contrast to Guthrie, in Hull, associations can vary in strength •sHr: strength to some connection between stimulus strength and response •Difference between concept of habit strength and habit •Habit refers to behavior that can be observed directly •habit strength: strength of association between stimulus and some response sHr = 1 - 10
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4 assumptions on habit strength: Hull
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1. sHr: habit strength increases (associative learning occurs only if response is reinforced) 2. Reinforcement occurs through drive (D) reduction. Biological needs give rise to D when response follow by reward, need is reduced, therefore D is reduce, reduction of D serves to increase habit strength. 3. Limit to habit strength, cannot increase indefinitely, habits may become only so strong. reward magnitude imposes limit to habit strength. The larger the reward, the stronger the association. 4. Habit strength is permanent, i.e., never decreases. Habits can decrease BUT "habit strength" cannot, its permanent according to Hull.
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Reaction potential (sHr): Hull
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The likelihood of a learned response being made at any given moment. reaction potential is a function of both habit strength (sHr) & drive (D). *for a learned response to occur, sHr has to be activated by D. *D does not direct behavior; simply arouses it and intensifies it. *Without drive (D), no response. sHr is a function of how often response was reinforced in situations and extent to which D is present. reaction potential = sEr = sHr x D
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reactive inhibition (Ir): Hull
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Fatigue eventually acts to inhibit responding. Reactive inhibition (Ir) is caused by the fatigue associated with muscular activity & related to amount of work involved in performing task. since this form of inhibition is related to fatigue, it automatically dissipates when organisms stop performing. has been used to explain spontaneous recovery of a conditioned response after extinction. may also be used to explain their reminiscence effect which is the improvement of performance following cessation of practice
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conditioned inhibition (sIr): Hull
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fatigue being a neg. drive state, not responding is reinforcing. Allows reactive inhibition (Ir) to dissipate, reducing neg. drive of fatigue. conditioned inhibition (sIr) is the learning process of not responding.
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effective reaction potential: Hull
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both reactive inhibition(Ir) and conditioned inhibition(sIr) operate against the elicitation of a learned response and are therefore subtracted from reaction potential (sEr), when Ir and sIr are subtracted from sEr, effective reaction (sEr, E has line on top) potential is the result effective reaction potential= sEr = sHr x D - (Ir + sIr)
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Crespi effect: Hull
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Crespi found that performance changed radically when the magnitude of reinforcement was changed. Hull concluded that organisms learn as rapidly for a small incentive as they do for a large one, but they perform differently as the size of the incentive (K) varies. the rapid change in performance following a change in reinforcement size is referred to ask the Crespi effect, after the man who 1st observed it.
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Experience: Learning
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•Experience, critical to the definition of learning because the term experience disqualifies as instances of learning, changes in behavior mediated by other processes, such as maturation, innate respond tendencies. Only concern about changes due to experience.
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Simple Discrimination task: learning
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Simple discrimination Task: • Subject usually given choice between 2 stimuli and give arbitrary designate response to 1 of the stimuli as correct answer
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Complex discrimination Task: Learning
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Complex discrimination Task: • A conditional discrimination, such as a fish is given a choice between blue and yellow but also hears a tone that is high or low in fish. Correct respond depends on the pitch. (listen to TAPE) • 1 such example would be a matching the sample task, referred to as a MTS • Another example would be symbolic matching the sample task, referred to as a SMTS • Correct response is conditional based on stimulus presented at the beginning of the experiment •Trial is always randomly assigned.
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Complex Discrimination
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Complex Discrimination •Conditional, correct response depends on stimulus presented at beginning of the trial *MTS - matching to sample task *SMTS - symbolic matching to sample task *DMTS - delayed matching to sample task, if there is a delay *DSMTS - delayed symbolic matching to sample task kind we will use in experiment, such as in class triangle →green, circle →red for operant chamber example, symbolic cause 2 forms symbolized different colors
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Intervening Variables: Hull
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•Include habit strength - sHr (represent learning) •Drive- D (biological state) •Reactive inhibition- Ir ( biological state on its behavior) •Condition inhibition - sIr (history) •Effective Reaction Potential-sEr (bar over E) •Factional antedating (anticipatory goal response -rg - sg •Reaction Potential = sEr (no bar over E) •In some cases intervening variables may be use to reduce # of relationships for which theory must account. •Asserts that there are positive and negative reaction tendency. Product of habit strength
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Intervening Variables: Hull
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•Used to represent the cumulative influence of 2 factors on behavior 1.Organism experience (learning discrete) 2.Organism's biological state (current physical condition) Plays important role because they mediate INTERVENING PROCESSES the effect of the environment S → sHr x D
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2 factors influenced intervening variables:Hull
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2 factors influence value of intervening variables: 1. experience, history 2. biological state •sHr influence by learning history •plays important role in theory, mediate effects of environment on behavior •s represents environment •r represents behavior
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Reactive Inhibition: Hull
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Reactive inhibition is Fatigue that results when work is performed
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Condition inhibition: Hull
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Condition inhibition: Conditioned form of reactive inhibition/fatigue. When reactive inhibition occurs, is some form of condition to environment which response occurs or where work is performed Exp. work in science hall, if perform work in environment, fatigue/reactive inhibition will occur, some conditioned to situation which work is performed. May be why after a nights sleep, we feel refresh but drag when go back to work. Cues elicit effects of condition inhibition
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Negative reactive tendency to explain process of extinction: Hull
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Negative reactive tendency to explain process of extinction: • Intervening variables mediate • When encounters stimulus, activates both positive and negative • Positive: product of habit strength and drive • Negative: Reactive inhibition and condition inhibition • Reactive inhibition is fatigue that results when work is performed
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Extinction: Hull
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If stop reinforcing, strength will decrease due to no longer being reinforced • Hull explained not in terms of habit strength, but in terms of increases in negative reaction/response tendency
