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Law of effect

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Thorndike Behavior is a function of its consequences

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Any given behavior can result in what two consequences, according to Thorndike?

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satisfying state of affairs annoying state of affairs

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Operant learning

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Also called instrumental learning, response learning, consequence learning, R-S learning. Experiences whereby behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences; behavior operates on the environment

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Skinner developed what four procedures?

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positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment

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Reinforcement

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increase in the strength of behavior due to its consequence. Three characteristics: 1) Behavior must have a consequence 2) Behavior must increase in strength 3) The increase in strength must be a result of the consequence. There are two kinds: positive and negative

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Positive reinforcement

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consequence of behavior is the appearance of, or increase in intensity of, a positive reinforcer. Also called reward learning (Skinner didn't like that term).

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Positive reinforcer

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a stimulus that an individual ordinarily seeks.

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Negative reinforcement

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behavior is strengthened by the removal of, or decrease in the intensity of, a negative reinforcer. Also called escape learning or escape-avoidance learning.

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Negative reinforcer

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a stimulus that an individual ordinarily avoids

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Problems with positive and negative reinforcement

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They are not always the same for all people. They often occur together and it can be difficult to tell them apart.

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What is the strength of behavior?

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The frequency or probability of a behavior. The tendency of a behavior to continue after reinforcement is discontinued. The tendency of a behavior to persist after other averse consequences. The tendency of a behavior to persist when more effort is required. The tendency of a behavior to persist even when other reinforcers are available for other behaviors.

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Behavioral momentum

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behavior that has been reinforced many times is more likely to persist even when obstructed.

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Primary reinforcers

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Also unconditioned reinforcers. are innately effective. Ex: food, water, sleep, activity, drugs, electrical impulses to the brain's pleasure areas. Less obvious examples include social contact, exerting control over the environment, sensory stimulation -sometimes, it is difficult to say why these are effective. problems - satiation

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Satiation

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primary reinforcers lose effectiveness. If you aren't hungry, getting food isn't as important.

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Secondary reinforcers

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Also called conditioned reinforcers. Result of learning. Ex: praise, recognition, smiles, applause. Generally weaker than primary. Advantages: Satiate more slowly than primary reinforcers, easier to reinforce immediately (bridges), less disruptive than primary, can be used in many situations.

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Generalized reinforcers

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combined with primary and secondary reinforcers - Money

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Natural reinforcers

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reinforcers that happen spontaneously (naturally)

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Contrived reinforcers

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reinforcers that are provided by someone to modify behavior

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Compare operant and classical conditioning

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The role of behavior: - O: event depends on a behavior - C: event is independent of behavior (S-S), event to event. Involve different kinds of behavior - O: not reflexive (usually) - C: reflexive They do often occur together.

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Variables affecting operant conditioning

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Contingency Contiguity Reinforcer characteristics Behavior characteristics Motivating operations Previous experience Competing contingencies

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Contingency

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degree of correlation between a behavior and its consequence

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Contiguity

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Time gap between behavior and reinforcer Shorter gaps means faster learning. - delays allow time for other behaviors to occur - delay can work if preceded by a particular stimulus (bridge)

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Reinforcer characteristics affecting conditioning

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Size or strength, magnitude Qualitative differences

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Behavior characteristics affecting conditioning

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difficulty of behavior Things like heart rate and biofeedback can be conditioned, but the results are generally small. Difficulty varies with species

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Motivating operations

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anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence Two kinds: establishing and abolishing Some are predictable, some counterintuitive, like having to work hard makes things more reinforcing.

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Establishing operations

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Increase the effectiveness of a consequence Ex - deprive of food, food becomes more potent as a reinforcer.

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Abolishing operations

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Decrease the effectiveness of a consequence

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Competing contingencies

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If behavior also has punishments or if other behaviors are rewarded

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Reward pathway

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a reward center Brain region that has cells that produce dopamine when stimulated.

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Dopamine

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Neurotransmitter, gives a natural "high"

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Theories of positive reinforcement

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Hull's drive-reduction theory Relative value theory and the Premack Principle Response-deprivation theory

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Drive-reduction theory

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Hull's theory that we have drives (motivational states that drive behavior) and we try to reduce them. The theory works well with primary reinforcers. However, some reinforcers don't reduce needs. So, secondary reinforcers derive reinforcing power from their association with primary reinforcers. Critics say it's hard to classify primary and secondary. The event doesn't have to reduce a drive.

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Drive

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A motivational state that drives behavior

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Relative Value theory

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Relative values of events determine the effectiveness of a reinforcer. Makes no use of drives or primary/secondary reinforcers. Relative values can be reversed Strictly empirical. Problems - doesn't explain secondary reinforcers. Low can reinforce high if deprived of low.

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Premack principle

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High probability behavior reinforces low probability behavior

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Response-deprivation theory

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Timberlake and Allison Also called equilibrium/response restriction. Behavior becomes reinforcing when the individual is prevented from engaging in its normal frequency. The rat must run to get water. If he has enough water, then he must drink to run. Similar to Premack, but relative value is not pivitol - baseline rate. Trouble - the power of "yes."

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Theories of avoidance

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Two-process theory One-process theory

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Two-process theory

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Two kinds of learning are involved in avoidance - CC and OC. Dog - light and shock. Rats in a white compartment and shock. Not all tests support this. If a CS loses its aversiveness, avoidence should fade, but it doesn't.

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Sidman avoidance procedure

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An escape-avoidance training procedure in which no stimulus regularly precedes the aversive stimulus. Also called unsignaled avoidance.

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One-process theory

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The view that avoidance and punishment involve only one procedure—operant learning. Reduction in exposure to shock is reinforcing. Problems - extinction not happening.

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The relationship between behavior and consequences is called the law of _________________.

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effect

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Reinforcement occurs when the consequences of a behavior _________________ the behavior.

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increases

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Negative reinforcement is sometimes called ________________ learning

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escape-avoidance

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John Nevin suggests that the increase in strength due to reinforced can be considered behavioral ________________.

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momentum

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The most important difference between Pavlovian and operant learning concerns the role of __________________.

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behavior

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An important variable in operant learning that has been largely neglected is ______________.

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previous learning experience

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There are two kinds of motivating operations. Those that increase the effectiveness of a reinforcer are called ____________________.

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establishing

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According to David Premack, reinforcement involves a relation between a high-_________________ behavior and a low-___________________ behavior.

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probability, probability

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According to ____________________ theory, an activity becomes reinforcing when an individual is prevented from engaging in it at the baseline rate.

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response-deprivation

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The two processes of the two-process theory of avoidance are ___________________ and _____________________.

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Pavlovian, operant

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Thorndike studied animal learning as a way of measuring animal ______________.

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intelligence

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According to Thorndike's law of __________, the strength of a behavior depends on its ___________.

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effect, consequences

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Positive and negative reinforcement have this in common: Both ________ behavior.

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strengthen

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The defining feature of primary reinforcers is that they are not dependent on ______________.

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Learning

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___________ refers to the likelihood that a reinforcer will follow a behavior.

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Contingency

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In general, the more you increase the amount of a reinforcer, the _________ benefit you get from the increase.

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less

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A motivating operation is anything that changes the effectiveness of a _______________.

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reinforcer

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Positive reinforcement is associated with the release of ___________ in the brain.

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dopamine

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According to the Premack principle, _____________ behavior reinforces _________ behavior.

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high-probability/likely/strong, low-probability/unlikely/weak

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According to response-deprivation theory, schoolchildren are eager to go to recess because they have been deprived of the opportunity to ____________.

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move about/exercise

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The two processes in two-process theory are_________________.

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Pavlovian conditioning and operant learning

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If a pain stops after taking medicine, this is usually considered a positive thing, so why is it called negative reinforcement if the tendency to take the drug is strengthened?

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The drug takes away a bad thing, so it is negative reinforcement.

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What is the single most important difference between Pavlovian and operant learning?

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The role of behavior

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Why does a delay in a reinforcer reduce its strengthening power?

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The delay allows time for other behaviors to occur and other reinforcements/punishments to be given.

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Sylvia believes that the reinforcement properties of an event depend on the extent to which it provides access to high probability behavior. Sylvia is most likely an advocate of ____ theory.

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relative value

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_____is a neurotransmitter that seems to be important in reinforcement.

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Dopamine

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Studies of delayed reinforcement document the importance of ____.

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contiguity

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Operant learning may also be referred to as ____.

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instrumental learning

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____________________ theory assumes that a behavior becomes reinforcing when we are prevented from performing it as often as we normally would.

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Response deprivation

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The three-term contingency is often represented by the letters ____.

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ABC - Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence

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The level of deprivation is less important when the reinforcer used is a/an ____ reinforcer.

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secondary

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Reinforcers such as praise, positive feedback, and smiles are called ____________________ reinforcers

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secondary

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Negative reinforcement is also called ____.

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escape-avoidance training

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