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increases behavior/response

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reinforcement

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decreases behavior/response

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punishment

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a behavior increases in frequency if some stimulus is presented after the behav occurs

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positive reinforcement

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a behav increases in frequency if some stimulus is removed after behav occurs

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negative reinforcement

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type of neg reinforcement where response leads to termination of stimulus

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escape

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response prevents unpleasant stimulus from happening ex: pay tax to avoid bad consequences of not doing so

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avoidance

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omission; pleasant stimulus removed if behav occurs --> behav decreases. Most effective if omission occurs immediately after bh every time.

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negative punishment

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behavior decreases after being followed nu unpleasant stimulus

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positive punishment

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shuttle box experiment; dog can avoid shock by jumping over barrier when light goes out; shocked if stayed in dark compartment for > 10 sec

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Solomon and wynne

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how can no occurrence of event (shock) serve as reinforcer for the avoidance response? there's isn't even a change in stimulus

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avoidance paradox

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two process theory; both classical (learning to fear stimulus) and operant (escape from fear-ellicitng stimulus) needed for avoidance responding; need CS and US; reinforcer for jumping isn't avoidance of shock but escape from fear-eliciting CS

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two-factor theory

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conditioning of fear response to initially neutral stimulus

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1st process of two-factor theory

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operant conditionig; escape from fear-provoking CS. Theory says reinforcer for jumping isn't avoidance of shock but escape from fear-eliciting CS

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2nd process of two-factor theory

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Rescorla and Lolordo trained dogs to jump in shuttle box bc of shock --> conditioning with tone & shock --> dogs dramagically increase rate of jumping when tone on. Stimulus trained as CS for fear can amplify ongoing behavior

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Evidence for Two-Factor Theory

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animals can learn new responses that terminate signal ex: turn wheel and escape form chamber

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New Responses that terminate signal

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Black - sometimes no change in heart rate (measure of fear) or it increases after avoidance response. Soloman and Wynne - SIgns of fear disappear as subjects become more experienced, but it should be greatest when avoidance response strongest bc fear supposedly motivates avoidance. Dinsmoor maintained not necessary to assume CS produces fear, only that CS has become aversive stimulus that animal will avoid; ALSO, response should weaken when US of shock not present but opposite occurs

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Problems with Two-Factor Theory

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in perspective of two-factor theory, each trial of avoiding shock is classical conditioning extinction trial. CS presented without US, so fear should gradually weaken

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Extinction of Avoidance Behavior

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avoidance behavior has extreme resistance to extinction, latencies decreased even though no shock, strength of avoidance increased during shock-free trials (all troublesome for 2 factor theory)

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Traits of Avoidance

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CC component of two-factory theory not neccessary. Avoidance of shock is a reinforcer, NOT escape from fear-eliciting CS

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One-Factor Theory

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no signal preceding shock, but if subject makes no responses, shocks occur at perfectly regular intervals BUT passage of time still served as stimulus for shocks. Fear increased as more time passed

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Sidman Avoidance Task/Free-Operant Avoidance

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no guarantee of any shock. Could use lever to switch from 30% chance shock to 10% chance shock --> 17/18 rats acquired avoidance response --> animals can learn avoidance response w/o external CS. Reduction in shock frequency the Sr for avoidance response --> one factory theory also called shock-frequency reduction theory

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Herrnstein and Hineline

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one factory theory --> slow extinction of avoidance responses. If subj keeps avoiding shock but shock is extinct it is difficult to differentiate the change

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Extinction in One-Factor Theory

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they said this theory superior to 2 factor and 1 factor theories: 2 expectations in avoidance situation. #1 = expectation about consequences of a response #2 = expectation about consequences of not responding. Animal learns no shock if they respond and shock if no response. Animal's bh won't change until 1 or both expectations violated --> slow extinction of bh. As long as animal responses --> no shock, consistent with expectation

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Seligman and Johnston's Cognitive Theory of Avoidance

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extinction can be speed up by response blocking/flooding - presenting signal that precedes shock but preventing subject from making avoidance response. "flooded" with exposure to stimuli that used to lead to shock. Doesn't match expectation --> new expectation that no shock follows response. Used to prevent bad bh when bh too dangerous od destructibe to wait for extinction to occur, prevents immediate damange or injury

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Response Blocking (flooding)

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forced exposure to CS --> extinction of conditioned fear

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Effects of Response Blocking in Two-Factory Theory

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response blocking introduces drastic change which is cue that things are now different

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Effects of Response Blocking in One-Factory Theory

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another way to hasten extinction = present shock whether o not response occurs

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Another Method of Extinction

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animal escapes from predator and later encounters CS - sight, smell, that preceded attack (2 factory theory). Bolles said nonsense since in real life predator doesn't present cues before attack

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Biological Constraints in Avoidance Learning

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animals stay alive through 3 categories: freezing, fleeing, and fighting. Avoidance response will be quickly learned if identital or similar to a SSDR. If not, avoidance learned slowly or not at all. Fleeing a likely response but take many trials to learn to jump over. When reinforcer = avoid shock, lever pressing difficult to learn but not when reinforcer = food or water. Principle that neg. reinforcement (any response that helps aversive event will be strengthened) not useful when SSDRs take over

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Species-Specific Defense Reactions

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Cognitive theory = violation of expectations while one-factory theory = changes in discriminative stimuli. Avoidance learning can occur w/o external signal. 2 factor theory problem - difficult explaining slowness of extinction. One factor theory and cognitive theory avoid these problems by assuming fear-eliciting CS is not required for avoidance bh; both theories (1 and 2 factor) have truths but dont know which one is completely right)

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Conclusion About Theories of Avoidance

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1 factory theory - molar (long term), animals sensitive to long-term consequences 2 factory theory - molecular (moment to moment), immediate consequences control avoidance responses

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Molar and Molecular

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flooding - start with highly feared stimulus and make patient remain in stimulus presence until external signs of fear gone systematic desensitization - start with stimulus that elicits small amount of fear. Hierarchy of fearful events of stimuli both equally effective, so no justification for unpleasant flooding. Long duration sessions essential for flooding or else phobia may increase

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Difference between Flooding and Systematic Desensitization

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expectation that behavior has little effect on environment ex: dog receives many shocks --> put in shuttle box but 2/3 of dogs never learn to escape. Initial training with inescapable shock --> dog learns expectation that bh has no effect. Decreases learning and performance. Sense of helplessness may be specific to 1 situation or global, may be attributed to internal or external factors, may view helplessness as stable or unstable. Having global attitudes about failure rather than specific event --> less success

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Learned Helplessness

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Motivational - lose motivation to try and control events Cognitive - lowered ability to learn, learn more slowly Emotional - rats developed ulcers, cats ate less

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3 Components of Learned Helplessness

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place subj in situation where it cannot fail --> expectation that bh controls consequence; can be prevented by immunization = 1st exposed to situation where response provides escape from shock --> inescapable situation presented --> new situation where new responses provides escape from shock. Initial experienced blocks onset of learned helplessness

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Treatment to Learned Helplessness

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Skinner believed punishment NOT the opposite of reinforcement but exp. not convincing

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Skinner's Punishment

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subjects may habituate to mild punisher. Intense punishment can --> long-term decrease or disappearance of punished bh. Aversive event can cause decrease in ongoing bh. Directly opposite of reinforcement!

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Is Punishment the Opposite of Reinforcement?

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manner of introduction (intense or weak), immediacy of punishment, schedule of punishment, motivation to respond, availability of alternative behaviors

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Factors Influencing Punishment Effectiveness

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punisher can function as discriminative stimulus - signal preceding availability of other stimuli ex: shock --> response increases bc food can only be obtained during period of punishment. Shock = stimuli for food availability

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Punishment as Discriminative Stimulus

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punishment can --> emotional effects like fear and anger that disrupt learning and performance, sometimes suppresses all bh, demands continual monitoring of bh, individuals may try to escape from situation, can lead to aggression against punisher or ppl around, ppl who must implement it may be reluctant, may be unethical

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Disadvantages of Using Punishment

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techniques that --> slowing, reduction, or elimination of unwanted bh ex: punishment, omission

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Behavior Decelerators

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scolding/reprimanding can influence bh but is a form of attention which is a powerful reinforcer. Manner of reprimand a major factor in its effectiveness. Soft private reprimand more effective than loud public reprimand

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Punishment of Voluntary Behavior

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punishment useful when sympton (coughing, puking) not caused by bh

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Punishment of Involuntary Behavior

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loss of tokens, $, or other conditioned Sr following occurrence of undesirable bh. Loss of points affect behaviors included under the rule ex: fine for being late from school and now prompt, but no in returning from errands.

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Response Cost

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1 or more desirable stimuli temporarily removed if person does unwanted bh

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Time-Out

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A phase - patient's bh recorded but no treatment B phase - treatment --> bh decreases A phase again --> no treatment --> bh increases B phase again - treatment --> bh declines and eventually stops

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ABAB Design

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subj. required to make several repetitions of an alternate, more desirable bh if undesired bh occurs. Often used with ppl with mental handicap to reduce aggression. Meets def of punishment bh decreases

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Overcorrection

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procedure to eliminate an unwanted bh that has been previously reinforced by escape from unpleasant situation, in which escape is prevented if unwanted bh occurs

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Escape Extinction

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delivery of free reinforcers at random times ex: aggressive child given toy or other Sr regardless of what child does. Toy can also be obtained by asking politely (bh they want to reinforce) --> reduction in aggression and in crease in polite requests for toys

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Noncontigent Reinforcement

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if cannot remove reinforcer that's maintaining bh, can present reinforcer so much it loses effectivess ex: woman who hoarded towels --> nurses bring up to 6000 towels --> woman begins removing then and stops hoarding. person who claimed to hear voices asked to record which voices heard --> stops

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Stimulus Satiation

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supported 2 factor theory. animals would move to other compartment in shuttle box to avoid CS even though shock never presented. Latencies decreased for experimental group (conditioned to CS) while control group had no conditioning and its latency did not increase; an organism acquires new responses just to TERMINATE a CS in the ABSENCE of a US

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Brown and Jacobs

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supported 2 factor theory. animals would press button to escape to other compartment even with no shock present. latency decreased

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Miller

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supported 2 factor theory. dog shocked if didn't jump to other compartment within 10 seconds. jumping rate increased with CS but returns to baseline after CS gone; organisms respond differently to CSs paired with neutral stimulus vs. fear eliciting CS

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Rescorla and LoLordo

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what produces self-esteem is the perception that one's actions controlled the experience

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Seligman's View of Negative Reinforcement in Behavior

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To the degree that UNCONTROLLABLE EVENTS occur, either traumatic or positive, depression will be predisposed and/or ego strength undermined; To the degree that CONTROLLABLE EVENTS occur, a sense of mastery and resistance to depression will result

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Seligman's Prediction of Negative Reinforcement in Behavior

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major source of NE, attention, vigilance, wakefulness

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Locus Coeruleus

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