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The four functions of behaviour

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Socially mediated negative reinforcement; socially mediated positive reinforcement; automatic positive reinforcement; automatic negative reinforcement.

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Socially mediated negative reinforcement

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Behaviours reinforced in this way lead to avoidance or escape of a task or situation.

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Socially mediated positive reinforcement

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Behaviours reinforced in this way lead to attention from others or access to tangibles.

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Automatic positive reinforcement

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Behaviours reinforced in this way feel good on their own, regardless of the presence of other people (ex. stimming).

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Automatic negative reinforcement

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Behaviours reinforced in this way lead to the removal of some aversive stimuli that is not associated with others (ex. scratching an itch removes the discomfort). There is less research on this form of reinforcement.

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Misuse of functional assessment

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Prescribing consequences without knowing the functional purpose of the behaviour.

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Interventions chosen must be based on this; it determines what your treatment will be.

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The function of the behaviour.

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Five outcomes of FBA

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It gives a clear description of the behaviour; it identifies times/events/people/situations that predict the behaviour; it helps to develop the hypothesis behind the behaviour; it collects data to support the hypothesis.

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Setting event

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Something that prompted the start of the behaviour or set the behaviour in motion; an antecedent. Ex: a medical issue or change in routine.

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Four methods of FBA

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Informant/indirect assessment; direct observation; continuous data; functional analysis.

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Indirect assessment

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This method of FBA does not directly observe the behaviour. Questionnaires or interviews may be used to gather information about a client. This help to define the problem behaviour and the severity of the problem; it is usually the first step in collecting information. It may contribute to a hypothesis-driven functional analysis later on. This method is also called informant assessment.

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Advantages of indirect assessment

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This method is less time consuming, and it requires less staff and less training. It is good for low-frequency behaviour. It may be used when functional analysis is unethical or untenable (ex. if the behaviour is harmful).

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Disadvantages of indirect assessment

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Informant reports are naturally biased and subjective. They may lead to faulty hypotheses or conclusions about the behaviour.

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Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS)

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A 16-item questionnaire that identifies potential motivations behind a behaviour. It uses a 7-point Likert scale. This questionnaire was originally developed for SIB.

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Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST)

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A 27-item inventory developed by Iwata. It uses forced choice (Yes/No) to look at the function of a behaviour from five perspectives: attention, activity, escape, sensory stimulation and pain attenuation. Iwata does not recommend using this inventory on its own; it was developed to be used alongside other methods of assessment.

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Questions About Behavioural Function (QABF)

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A Likert scale looking at the function of behaviour.

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Descriptive assessment

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This can refer to both ABC data and sequential analysis. The goal of this type of assessment is to identify relations between environmental events and behaviour through direct observation of the environment. This method is more accurate than informant because data is objectively taken in a natural environment, but it produces only correlational data. It does not produce elevated rates of behaviour and does not create the risk of new reinforcement contingencies.

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Advantages of functional analysis

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This method gives valid conclusions about the function of behaviour and gives a clear demonstration of a functional relation. It can identify intermittent and subtle/idiosyncratic variables that function to maintain the behaviour (things that may not have been noticed). It meets the standards of scientific evidence; it also suggests short-term strategies for managing behaviour and provides guidelines for treatment.

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Disadvantages of functional analysis

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This method may strengthen/increase problem behaviour to unacceptable levels. It is not an ethical method to use for some behaviours (ie. those that are harmful, such as severe SIB); intentionally provoking such behaviours could cause harm. It may also inadvertently teach the problem behaviour in a new context. Those involved with this method must be trained and skilled, and it is more expensive than other methods. It is recommended that this type of assessment be done in a lab setting instead of the natural environment.

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ABC data

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Identifies the antecedent, behaviour and consequence. This is one of the most commonly used forms of descriptive assessment. It was originally developed to study parent-child interactions.

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Bijou's proposed methodological framework for taking ABC data

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Operationalize behaviour and environment; conduct IOA assessment; data collection; data analysis.

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Response-dependent recording (ABC data)

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Data is collected on environmental events that are strongly associated with problem behaviour. Data is also collected on the target behaviour, antecedents and consequences. Professionals and caregivers often collect functional assessment data on low rate behaviour.

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Narrative approach (descriptive method) for ABC data

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In this method, everything is recorded. This means it is easy to conduct and that any event can be recorded; it may be difficult to quantify, however, and untrained observers may make inferences or take inaccurate data.

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Structured approach for ABC data

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In this method, specific recording options are provided in a checklist. Relevant events are checked. This method is more precise and less ambiguous. It is typically used when there is already a general idea of what the antecedents and consequences are. Problems of inaccuracy may arise when people check things off because they seem "close" but are not what actually happened.

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Analysis of ABC data

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There are no systematic/empirical guidelines for analyzing ABC data. The standard procedure is to collect data on 10-15 behaviours and sum the frequencies of the specific antecedents and consequences, then present this data on a bar graph to help with hypothesis development.

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Scheduled observations

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Problem behaviour and environmental events are recorded during a specified time period. This data is typically analyzed sequentially and represents probability.

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Appropriate for assessing low-rate, high-intensity behaviours

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Descriptive assessment instead of other methods.

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Functional analysis

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A method introduced by Skinner; it looks for a functional relation (a predictable change in behaviour based on a change in environment/intervention). The purpose is to identify the function of behaviour. Antecedents and consequences are arranged systematically in a contrived situation (not in a natural context). There is a control condition, a contingent attention condition, a contingent escape condition and an alone condition.

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Three operant mechanisms

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SD, MO, and reinforcement contingency.

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Play/control condition (functional analysis)

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In this condition, the learner is allowed to play freely and attention is delivered for appropriate social interactions. Problem behaviour is ignored. NCR is delivered every 30 seconds. This eliminates the MO for social/automatic reinforcement.

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Tangible condition (functional analysis)

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In this condition, the client is allowed access to a preferred item for a few seconds (to increase MO) and then the item is removed. Appropriate behaviour is then ignored, and the tangible item is given if the client emits the problem behaviour. This tests for positive reinforcement.

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Attention condition

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In this condition, the individual is allowed to play and the instructor leaves them alone while they "do work." The instructor ignores the client and does not respond to socially appropriate behaviour. The instructor gives attention when the client engages in the problem behaviour. This tests for socially mediated positive (attention) reinforcement.

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Demand condition

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In this condition, the client is prompted to do a task. If they comply, the instructor delivers praise and attention. If the problem behaviour occurs, the instructor withdraws the task materials and turns away for 30 seconds. The demand sequence is then continued. This tests for socially mediated negative (escape) reinforcement.

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Alone condition

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This condition has no demands, toys or activities. The client is left alone. This tests for automatic reinforcement. (Note: Behaviour that occurs because of automatic reinforcement will likely occur in every other condition as well.)

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The usual order for FA conditions

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Alone, attention, play, and demand. End with tangible if it has been suggested that this is the reinforcer by indirect assessment or observation.

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Social validation

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A feature of measured results that includes the social significance of goals and the social appropriateness of procedures and effects. It is especially important in research.

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Wolf's satisfaction recommendations

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Find out whether the consumers are satisfied with the results (either planned or unplanned). Consider a questionnaire or interview to test satisfaction. Sometimes the client's significant others may not understand why certain things are being done, and this should be explained. Note: Even if intervention is considered experimentally successful, it is of no use if the consumers are unsatisfied.

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Motivating operation (MO)

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The differential reinforcing effectiveness of an event. Originally called Establishing Operations; these are transient and alter the effectiveness of something as a reinforcer. They also alter the current frequency of behaviour that has been reinforced by this in the past. They can be establishing or abolishing.

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Value-altering effect

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Alters the effectiveness of reinforcers or punishers.

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Behaviour-altering effect

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Alters the frequency of behaviour.

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Discriminative stimulus

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Differential availability of reinforcement.

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Preference assessment

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A variety of procedures used to determine the stimuli a person prefers, the relative preference value of those stimuli, and the conditions under which the preference values change.

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Reinforcer assessment

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An assessment that determines what stimuli are likely to serve as reinforcers (this stimuli may change based on many different things).

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Asking about stimulus preferences

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A method of preference assessment that involves asking the individual or a significant other as a first step. Open-ended questions, choices, rank ordering (giving a list to put in order) pre-task choice may be used. Some issues with this method: the learner may be satiated with a preferred item at home; reports may be just opinion or observation; preference may be based on certain conditions (such as only having one toy to play with).

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Observational preference assessment

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A naturalistic preference assessment. The learner is put in an environment with different items to see what they play with, how often, and for how long.

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Free operant assessment

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Similar to observational preference assessment, but done in a contrived environment. The learner is placed in a very rich environment and the observer records the stimuli they gravitate toward. (What items? In what order? For how long?)

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Forced choice assessment

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A type of preference assessment that asks the learner to choose from a large sample of items presented systematically. The items are then ranked. Some issues with this method: the items ranked may not be great reinforcers; this is not usually as accurate as other forms of preference assessment.

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Multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) assessment

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A type of preference assessment involving 8 stimuli presented on a table. The learner samples each item, and is brought to a location a few feet away from the table. The learner then selects one item at a time and each chosen item is removed. This continues until all but one item are removed. This should be repeated more than once.

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Concurrent schedule reinforcer assessment

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A method of reinforcer assessment that has two or more contingencies of reinforcement operating independently and simultaneously. Two stimuli are put together to see which one produces the larger increase in responding.

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Multiple schedule reinforcer assessment

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A method of reinforcer assessment that involves two or more component schedules of reinforcement for a single response, with only one component effect at a given time. One reinforcer is delivered contingent on response and the other is delivered non-contingently. (For example: if attention functioned as a reinforcer, it would increase in the condition that is response dependent but not in NCR.)

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Progressive ratio schedule reinforcer assessment

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A method of reinforcer assessment that involves increasing response requirements until a "breaking point" is reached for a specific reinforcer. The degree of responding before the breaking point gives an idea of which reinforcer is more effective.

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Curriculum assessment

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An assessment used either to design a curriculum or teach skills. The point is to determine strengths and needs and develop a learning plan. Looks across various domains such as vocational, educational, self-help etc.

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Diagnostic assessment

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The purpose of this assessment is diagnosis. It can only be done by psychologists or a psych associate. BAs can pay attention to behaviour that might suggest the need for a diagnostic assessment, but we must still refer to a psychologist.

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Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS)

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An assessment developed by Sundberg and Partington in 1998. This was one of the first assessments and curriculum guides in one, and it paved the way for others. It was primarily used for individuals with autism or language delays, but also with developmentally typical children and premature children. Sundberg and Partington parted ways and developed other assessments, and this one is not used frequently today.

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Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills Revised (ABLLS-R)

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An assessment that was revised in 2006 by Partington. It is based on Skinner's idea of verbal behaviour and breaks down verbal operants, although it is not just language-based. Skills are observed and items are scored from 0-2 or 0-4. Additional columns give a thorough explanation of the skill and the criteria for completing the skill.

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Limitations of the ABLLS-R

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This assessment is not exhaustive; some skills are missing. The revisions did not necessarily address some of the original problems. It does not address behavioural problems or talk about compliance, and there are no age-referenced norms. It also does not tell you how to teach skills.

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Verbal Behaviour Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP)

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An assessment developed by Sundberg. It is based on Skinner's analysis of verbal behaviour. It was field-tested by different professions. It consists of five components: a milestone assessment, a barriers assessment, a transition assessment,a skills analysis, and placement and IEP goals.

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VB-MAPP milestones assessment

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A component of the VB-MAPP that looks at a learner's verbal and related skills repertoire.

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VB-MAPP task analysis assessment

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A component of the VB-MAPP that further breaks down learning and language skills.

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VB-MAPP barriers assessment

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A component of the VB-MAPP that looks at 24 common learning/language acquisition barriers. This is the most difficult part of the VB-MAPP to score.

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VB-MAPP transition assessment

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A component of VB-MAPP that combines milestones and other assessment info to judge whether a learner should progress to a less-restrictive learning environment (ex. school).

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Essential For Living: Assessment of Functional Living Skills (EFL)

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An assessment that was designed for individuals with moderate to severe disabilities (especially those with limited skill repertoires, limited speech or severe problem behaviour). It is a curriculum assessment and a skill-tracking instrument; it also includes suggestions on how and when to teach various skills.

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Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS)

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An assessment that is similar to ABLLS-R, but extended to necessary skills of independence in home, school and community. It contains task analyses, teaching suggestions and prompting strategies. It has four individually available assessment modules: basic living skills, home skills, community participation skills and school skills.

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Advantages of the VB-MAPP

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The components of this assessment are measurable and developmentally balanced across verbal operants and skills. They are age-referenced (up to age 4). The curriculum is balanced to avoid rote responses and promote generalization.

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