question

psychology

answer

the science of behavior and mental processes

question

nature-nurture issue

answer

the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

question

natural selection

answer

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

question

neuroscience

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

question

evolutionary

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation of one's genes

question

behavior genetics

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how much our genes, and our environment, influence our individual differences

question

psychodynamic

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

question

behavioral

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how we learn observable responses

question

cognitive

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

question

social-cultural

answer

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

question

basic research

answer

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

question

applied research

answer

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

question

clinical psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

question

psychiatry

answer

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders, practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

question

hindsight bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

answer

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

question

critical thinking

answer

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

question

theory

answer

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

question

hypothesis

answer

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

question

operational definition

answer

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

question

replication

answer

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances

question

case study

answer

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

question

survey

answer

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

question

false consensus effect

answer

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

question

population

answer

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

question

random sample

answer

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

question

naturalistic observation

answer

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

question

correlation coefficient

answer

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

question

scatterplot

answer

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

question

illusory correlation

answer

the perception of a relationship where none exists

question

experiment

answer

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants the experimenter controls other relevant factors)

question

placebo

answer

an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

question

double-blind procedure

answer

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

question

placebo effect

answer

any effect on behavior caused by a placebo

question

experimental condition

answer

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

question

control condition

answer

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluation the effect of the treatment

question

random assignment

answer

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

question

independent variable

answer

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect if being studied

question

dependent variable

answer

the experimental factor--in psychology, the behavior or mental process--that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to the manipulations of the independent variable

question

mode

answer

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

question

mean

answer

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

question

median

answer

the middle score in a distribution; the scores are above it and half are below it

question

range

answer

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

question

standard deviation

answer

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

question

statistical significance

answer

a statistical criterion for rejecting the assumption of no differences in a particular study

question

culture

answer

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

question

Biological psychology

answer

concerned with links between biology and behavior

question

Neuron

answer

building blocks of the nervous system

question

Dendrite

answer

Branches designed to receive/send/and transport information

question

Axon

answer

transports messages to different muscles/glands in the body

question

Action potential

answer

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

question

Myelin sheath

answer

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

question

Threshold

answer

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

question

Synapse

answer

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft

question

Neurotransmitters

answer

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

question

Acetylcholine

answer

a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction

question

Endorphins

answer

"morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

question

Nervous system

answer

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

question

Central nervous system (CNS)

answer

the brain and spinal cord

question

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

answer

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

question

Nerves

answer

Neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

question

Sensory neurons

answer

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

question

Interneurons

answer

central nervous system neurons that intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

question

Motor neurons

answer

The neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

question

Somatic nervous system

answer

the division of the peripheral nervous sytem that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

question

Autonomic nervous system

answer

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

question

Sympathetic nervous system

answer

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

question

Parasympathetic nervous system

answer

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

question

Reflex

answer

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

question

Neural networks

answer

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer stimulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

question

Phrenology

answer

an ill-fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits.

question

lesion

answer

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

question

EEG (electroencephalogram)

answer

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

question

CT (computed tomography)

answer

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

question

PET (positron emission tomography)

answer

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

question

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

answer

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

question

brainstem

answer

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

question

medulla

answer

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

question

reticular formation

answer

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

question

thalamus

answer

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

question

cerebellum

answer

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

question

limbic system

answer

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

question

amygdala

answer

two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

question

hypothalamus

answer

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

question

cerebral cortex

answer

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

question

glial cells

answer

cells in the nervous system that are not neurons but that support, nourish, and protect neurons

question

frontal lobes

answer

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgement

question

parietal lobes

answer

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex

question

occipital lobes

answer

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

question

temporal lobes

answer

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears, includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear

question

motor cortex

answer

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

question

sensory cortex

answer

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

question

association areas

answer

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

question

aphasia

answer

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to either Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

question

Broca's Area

answer

an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

question

Wernicke's area

answer

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

question

plasticity

answer

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in the brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

question

corpus callosum

answer

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

question

split brain

answer

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain at isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

question

endocrine system

answer

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

question

hormones

answer

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

question

adrenal glands

answer

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress

question

pituitary gland

answer

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

question

learning

answer

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

question

associative learning

answer

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

question

behaviorism

answer

the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1) but not with 2).

question

classical conditioning

answer

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

question

unconditioned response (UCR)

answer

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

question

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

answer

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally--naturally and automatically--triggers a response.

question

conditioned response (CR)

answer

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS)

question

conditioned stimulus (CS)

answer

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

question

acquisition

answer

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

question

extinction

answer

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

question

spontaneous recovery

answer

the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response

question

generalization

answer

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

question

discrimination

answer

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguished between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

question

operant conditioning

answer

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

question

respondent behavior

answer

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

question

operant behavior

answer

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

question

law of effect

answer

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

question

operant chamber ("Skinner box")

answer

a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research

question

shaping

answer

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximation of a desired goal

question

reinforcer

answer

in operant conditioning, an event that strengthens the behavior it follows

question

primary reinforcer

answer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

question

conditioned reinforcer (or secondary reinforcer)

answer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

question

continuous reinforcement

answer

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

question

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

answer

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

question

fixed-ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

question

variable-ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

question

fixed-interval schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

question

variable-interval schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

question

punishment

answer

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

question

cognitive map

answer

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

question

latent learning

answer

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

question

overjustification effect

answer

the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

question

observational learning

answer

learning by observing others

question

modeling

answer

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

question

prosocial behavior

answer

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

question

memory

answer

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

question

flashbulb memory

answer

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

question

encoding

answer

the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning

question

storage

answer

the retention of encoded information over time

question

retrieval

answer

the process of getting information out of memory storage

question

sensory memory

answer

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

question

short-term memory

answer

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

question

long-term memory

answer

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

question

working memory

answer

a similar concept that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information

question

automatic processing

answer

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

question

effortful processing

answer

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

question

rehearsal

answer

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

question

spacing effect

answer

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practiced

question

serial position effect

answer

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

question

semantic encoding

answer

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

question

acoustic encoding

answer

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

question

visual encoding

answer

the encoding of picture images

question

imagery

answer

mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

question

mnemonics

answer

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivd imagery and organizational devices

question

chunking

answer

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

question

iconic memory

answer

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

question

echoic memory

answer

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds

question

long-term potentiation (LPT)

answer

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

question

amnesia

answer

the loss of memory

question

implicit memory

answer

retention without conscious recollection (of skills and dispositions) (aka procedural memory)

question

explicit memory

answer

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (aka declarative memory)

question

hippocampus

answer

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

question

recall

answer

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

question

recognition

answer

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

question

relearning

answer

a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

question

priming

answer

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

question

déjà vu

answer

the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

question

mood-congruent memory

answer

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

question

proactive interference

answer

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

question

retroactive interference

answer

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

question

repression

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

question

misinformation effect

answer

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

question

source amnesia

answer

attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (aka source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

question

cognition

answer

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering

question

concept

answer

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

question

prototype

answer

a mental image of best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

question

algorithm

answer

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier--but also more error-prone--use of heuristics

question

heuristic

answer

a rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier also more error-prone than algorithms

question

insight

answer

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

question

confirmation bias

answer

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

question

fixation

answer

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving

question

mental set

answer

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem.

question

functional fixedness

answer

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, an impediment to problem solving

question

representativeness heuristic

answer

a rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; maybe lead one to ignore other relevant information

question

availability heuristic

answer

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vivdness), we presume such events are common

question

overconfidence

answer

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs in judgments

question

framing

answer

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

question

belief bias

answer

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

question

belief perseverance

answer

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

question

artificial intelligence (AI)

answer

the science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to stimulate human thought processes such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language. Includes practical applications (chess playing, industrial robots, expert systems) and efforts to model human thinking inspired by our current understanding of how the brain works

question

computer neural networks

answer

computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterns and smells.

question

consciousness

answer

our awareness of ourselves and our environments

question

fantasy-prone personality

answer

someone who imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizing

question

biological rhythms

answer

periodic physiological fluctuations

question

circadian rhythm

answer

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

question

REM sleep

answer

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

question

alpha waves

answer

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

question

sleep

answer

periodic, natural, and reversible loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

question

hallucinations

answer

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

question

sleep spindles

answer

burst of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity during Stage 2 sleep

question

delta waves

answer

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (stage 4)

question

insomnia

answer

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

question

narcolepsy

answer

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

question

sleep apnea

answer

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings.

question

night terrors

answer

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmare, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within 2 or 3 hours of falling sleep, and are seldom remembered

question

dream

answer

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remember it

question

manifest content

answer

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent content)

question

latent content

answer

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve.

question

REM rebound

answer

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

question

hypnosis

answer

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feeling, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

question

posthypnotic amnesia

answer

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion

question

posthypnotic suggestion

answer

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

question

dissociation

answer

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

question

hidden observer

answer

Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

question

psychoactive drug

answer

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

question

tolerance

answer

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

question

withdrawal

answer

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

question

physical dependence

answer

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

question

psychological dependence

answer

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

question

depressants

answer

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

question

stimulants

answer

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines and cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

question

hallucinogens

answer

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

question

barbiturates

answer

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

question

opiates

answer

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they suppress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

question

amphetamines

answer

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

question

LSD

answer

a powerful hallucinogenic drug, aka acid

question

THC

answer

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

question

near-death experience

answer

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

question

dualism

answer

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

question

monism

answer

the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

question

selective attention

answer

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

question

visual capture

answer

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

question

gestalt

answer

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

question

figure-ground

answer

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

question

grouping

answer

the perceptual tendency to organize information into coherent groups

question

depth perception

answer

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional, allows us to judge distance

question

visual cliff

answer

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

question

binocular cues

answer

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and converge, that depend on the use of two eyes

question

monocular cues

answer

distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone

question

retinal disparity

answer

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images the retina receives of an object, the closer the object is to the viewer

question

convergence

answer

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

question

interposition

answer

an MC; if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

question

relative size

answer

an MC; if we assume that two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away

question

relative clarity

answer

an MC; because light from distant objects passes through more atmosphere, we perceive hay objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

question

texture gradient

answer

an MC; a gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. Objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed

question

relative height

answer

an MC; we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away

question

relative motion (motion parallax)

answer

As we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move

question

linear perspective

answer

Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more the lines converge, the greater the perceived distance

question

light and shadow

answer

Nearby objects reflect more light to eyes. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away

question

phi phenomenon

answer

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession

question

perceptual constancy

answer

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

question

shape constancy

answer

perceiving the same shape for objects, even if retinal image changes

question

size constancy

answer

perceiving the same size for objects, even if retinal image changes

question

lightness constancy (aka brightness constancy)

answer

perceiving the same lightness for objects, even if retinal image changes; perceived lightness depends on relative luminance

question

perceptual adaptation

answer

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

question

perceptual set

answer

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

question

human factors psychologists

answer

psychologists that help design appliances, machines, and work settings that harness natural perception sets.

question

extrasensory perception (ESP)

answer

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

question

parapsychology

answer

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESp and psychokinesis

question

telepathy

answer

mind-to-mind communication

question

clairvoyance

answer

perceiving remote events, ie that a friend's house is on fire

question

precognition

answer

perceiving future events, ie a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome

question

psychokinesis

answer

"mind over matter" ie levitating a table or influencing the roll of a die

question

cocktail party effect

answer

ability to attend to only one voice among many

question

proximity

answer

the effect of grouping nearby figures together

question

similarity

answer

the effect of grouping similar figures together

question

continuity

answer

the effect of perceiving smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

question

connectedness

answer

the effect of perceiving spots, lines, or areas as a single unit

question

closure

answer

the effect of filling in gaps to create a complete whole object

question

sensation

answer

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

question

perception

answer

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

question

bottom-up processing

answer

analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

question

top-down processing

answer

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

question

psychophysics

answer

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

question

absolute threshold

answer

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

question

signal detection theory

answer

predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

question

subliminal

answer

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

question

difference threshold

answer

the minimum difference that a person can detect between two stimuli. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (aka jnd)

question

Weber's Law

answer

the principle that, to perceive their difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

question

sensory adaptation

answer

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

question

transduction

answer

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses

question

wavelength

answer

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

question

hue

answer

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

question

intensity

answer

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

question

pupil

answer

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

question

iris

answer

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

question

lens

answer

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina

question

accommodation

answer

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus the image of near objects on the retina

question

retina

answer

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

question

acuity

answer

the sharpness of vision

question

nearsightedness

answer

a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because the lens focuses the image of distance objects in front of the retina

question

farsightedness

answer

a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina

question

rods

answer

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

question

cones

answer

receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

question

optic nerve

answer

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

question

blind spot

answer

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

question

fovea

answer

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

question

parallel processing

answer

the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

question

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

answer

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors--one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue--which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color

question

opponent-process theory

answer

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. (complete explanation pg 187)

question

color constancy

answer

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

question

audition

answer

the sense of hearing

question

frequency

answer

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

question

pitch

answer

a tone's highness or lowness; depends on frequency

question

middle ear

answer

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

question

inner ear

answer

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

question

cochlea

answer

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

question

place theory

answer

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

question

frequency theory

answer

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

question

conduction hearing loss

answer

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

question

sensorineural hearing loss

answer

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

question

gate-control theory

answer

theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

question

sensory interaction

answer

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

question

kinesthesis

answer

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

question

vestibular sense

answer

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

question

motivation

answer

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

question

instinct

answer

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

question

drive-reduction theory

answer

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

question

homeostasis

answer

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

question

incentive

answer

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

question

hierarchy of needs

answer

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

question

glucose

answer

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

question

set point

answer

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

question

basal metabolic rate

answer

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

question

anorexia nervosa

answer

an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

question

bulimia nervosa

answer

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

question

sexual response cycle

answer

the four stages of sexual responding described by Matsters and Johnson-excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

question

excitement phase

answer

one of the phases of the sexual response cycle; characterized by the genital areas becoming engorged with blood, causing the man's penis to become partially erect and the woman's clitoris to swell and the inner lips covering her vagina to open up

question

plateau phase

answer

one of the phases of the sexual response cycle; characterized by the excitement peaking as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase. The penis becomes fully engorged. Orgasm feels imminent.

question

orgasm

answer

one of the phases of the sexual response cycle; characterized by observed muscle contractions all over the body and further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates, followed by ejaculation in men and orgasm in women.

question

resolution phase

answer

one of the phases of the sexual response cycle; characterized by the body slowly returning to its unaroused state

question

refractory period

answer

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

question

estrogen

answer

a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

question

sexual disorder

answer

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

question

sexual orientation

answer

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

question

achievement motivation

answer

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

question

intrinsic motivation

answer

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective

question

extrinsic motivation

answer

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

question

industrial/organizational psychology

answer

a subfield of psychology that studies and advises on workplace behavior. Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and design products and assess responses to them

question

task leadership

answer

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

question

social leadership

answer

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

question

Theory X

answer

assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money and, thus, should be directed from above.

question

Theory Y

answer

assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity.

question

emotion

answer

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

question

James-Lange Theory

answer

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

question

Cannon-Bard Theory

answer

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus spontaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

question

two-factor theory

answer

Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

question

polygraph

answer

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion

question

catharsis

answer

emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

question

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

answer

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

question

subjective well-being

answer

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

question

adaptation-level phenomenon

answer

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a "neutral" level defined by our prior experience

question

relative deprivation

answer

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

question

personality

answer

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

question

free association

answer

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

question

psychoanalysis

answer

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

question

unconscious

answer

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

question

preconscious

answer

Information that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awareness

question

id

answer

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

question

ego

answer

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

question

superego

answer

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

question

psychosexual stages

answer

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

question

Oedipus complex

answer

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

question

Electra complex

answer

counterpart to the Oedipus complex for females

question

identification

answer

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

question

fixation

answer

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

question

defense mechanisms

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

question

repression

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

question

regression

answer

defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated (ie thumb sucking)

question

reaction formation

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings. (ie changing "I hate him" to "I love him")

question

projection

answer

defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others (ie changing "I don't trust him" to "He doesn't trust me" ... "The thief thinks everyone else is a thief")

question

rationalization

answer

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

question

displacement

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet. (ie kicking the dog)

question

sublimation

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism by which people rechannel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities

question

projective test

answer

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

question

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

answer

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

question

Rorschach inkblot test

answer

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

question

collective unconscious

answer

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

question

trait

answer

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

question

personality inventory

answer

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

question

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

answer

the most widely reserached and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes

question

empirically derived test

answer

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

question

self-actualization

answer

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

question

unconditional positive regard

answer

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

question

self-concept

answer

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

question

self-esteem

answer

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

question

self-serving bias

answer

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

question

individualism

answer

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

question

collectivism

answer

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

question

reciprocal determinism

answer

the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors

question

personal control

answer

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

question

external locus of control

answer

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate

question

internal locus of control

answer

the perception that one controls one's own fate

question

learned helplessness

answer

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

question

positive psychology

answer

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

question

developmental psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

question

zygote

answer

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

question

embryo

answer

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month in which major body systems develop.

question

fetus

answer

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth in which the first bone cells appear.

question

teratogens

answer

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

question

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

answer

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

question

rooting reflex

answer

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple.

question

habituation

answer

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

question

maturation

answer

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

question

schema

answer

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

question

assimilation

answer

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas.

question

cognition

answer

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

question

accommodation

answer

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

question

object permanence

answer

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

question

sensorimotor stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

question

conservation

answer

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

question

egocentrism

answer

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty in taking another's point of view.

question

preoperational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

question

theory of mind

answer

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict.

question

autism

answer

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.

question

concrete operational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

question

formal operational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

question

attachment

answer

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

question

stranger anxiety

answer

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

question

critical period

answer

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

question

imprinting

answer

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.

question

basic trust

answer

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

question

self-concept

answer

(1) a sense of one's identity and personal worth. (2) all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

question

adolescence

answer

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

question

primary sex characteristics

answer

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

question

puberty

answer

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

question

secondary sex characteristics

answer

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

question

menarche

answer

the first menstrual period.

question

identity

answer

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

question

intimacy

answer

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

question

menopause

answer

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

question

Alzheimer's disease

answer

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning.

question

cross-sectional study

answer

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

question

longitudinal study

answer

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

question

crystallized intelligence

answer

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

question

fluid intelligence

answer

one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

question

social clock

answer

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

question

preconventional

answer

morality at this level of Kohlberg's theory is determined by the will of outside authority (adults such as parents and teachers) and centers around gaining reward or avoiding punishment.

question

conventional

answer

morality at this level of Kohlber'gs theory is determined by approval seeking and law and order. Right and wrong is determined by society's rules. There is respect for authority and majority rule.

question

postconventional

answer

in this Kohlberg level right and wrong determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute or by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice

question

Kohlberg

answer

theorist who claimed individuals went through a series of stages in the process of moral development.

question

Piaget

answer

theorist that developed a series of stages in which an individual passes during cognitive development.

question

Marcia

answer

stage theorist who focused on the adolescent crisis of Erik Erikson and came up for four stages that adolescents pass through while seeking an identity.

question

Erikson

answer

theorist who studied psychosocial development across the lifespan.

question

identity vs. role confusion

answer

Erikson's name for the crisis of adolescence.

question

temperament

answer

an individual's basic disposition, which is evident from infancy and is generally stable across the lifespan

question

Harlow

answer

researcher that highlighted the importance of physical contact comfort in the formation of attachments with parents (monkeys)

question

secure

answer

attachment style in which infants are able to explore, are upset when their caregiver leaves and happy when their caregiver returns

question

anxious ambivalent

answer

attachment style in which they are less likely to explore with parent present, protest when they leave, and not comforted when they return

question

avoidant

answer

attachment style in which they seek little contact with their caregiver and are not distressed when the caregiver leaves

AP Psychology ALL Terms – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards