question

analogous

answer

Two or more traits that are similar in function but not in structure or evolutionary origin.

question

category learning

answer

Learning to identify specific items as members, or not, of a larger group or set of items.

question

causal learning

answer

Learning about the causes of an event.

question

compound potentiation

answer

In classical conditioning, the finding that there is more conditioning to a weak conditional stimulus if it is combined with a more salient conditional stimulus during conditioning. Mainly known in flavor aversion learning, where conditioning of a weak odor may be especially strong if it is combined with a salient taste during conditioning. The opposite of overshadowing.

question

dual-process view

answer

The idea that humans learn both propositions and simple associations, and that these are not necessarily the same. Thus, in a classical conditioning experiment, the human might learn that "the conditional stimulus leads to the unconditional stimulus" as well as form a simple association between the CS and US. See Proposition learning.

question

exaptation

answer

A trait that has adaptive value but was not originally selected for its current function.

question

focal sets

answer

In probabilistic contrast theory, the idea that the contingency between two events is calculated over a relevant subset of the trials.

question

hedonic shift

answer

The observation that in taste aversion learning, the flavor conditional stimulus actually becomes unpleasant.

question

hidden units

answer

Nodes or units in a connectionist network that come between the input and output units and usually have no other connections outside the network (and are thus are not "visible" to outside systems).

question

homologous

answer

Two or more traits that are similar in structure and evolutionary origin.

question

interference

answer

Memory impairment caused by conflicting information that was learned at some other time.

question

long-delay learning

answer

Conditioning that occurs when there is a long period of time between the conditional stimulus and the unconditional stimulus.

question

modules

answer

Hypothetical specialized cognitive mechanisms that have evolved to deal with information in a restricted domain.

question

probabilistic contrast model

answer

A model developed to explain associative learning in humans that computes contingencies between events by defining and comparing the probability of an event in the presence and absence of selected cues.

question

proposition learning

answer

In classical conditioning, the learning of a verbal relation, such as "the conditional stimulus causes the unconditional stimulus to occur" or "the conditional stimulus leads to the unconditional stimulus," in contrast to merely associating the CS and the US.

question

stimulus relevance

answer

The observation that learning occurs more rapidly with certain combinations of conditional and unconditional stimuli (such as a taste and illness) than with other stimulus combinations (such as taste and shock).

question

successive negative contrast

answer

A negative contrast effect in which exposure to a large positive reward decreases the subsequent positive reaction to a smaller positive reward than would ordinarily be observed.

question

within-compound association

answer

A learned association that may be formed between two conditional stimuli when they are presented together in a compound.

question

According to Seligman, when evolution does NOT favor the learning of an association, that association is

answer

contraprepared

question

Learning can sometimes occur with an unusually long delay between stimuli, particularly in taste aversion, which was a problem for the generality of the laws of learning. This problem was mediated by which observation?

answer

there are fewer relevant interfering stimuli that can occur between a taste and an illness than between most other CSs and USs

question

Research has shown that learned safety to taste cues is analogous to

answer

conditioned inhibition, because a safe cue can partially nullify a dangerous one

question

hedonic shift refers to

answer

a change in the value or appeal of a taste as a result of its being paired with a pleasant or unpleasant outcome.

question

which behavior provides the best example of what happens in a taste reactivity test?

answer

The subject produces disgust responses (e.g., a dog snorts, wrinkles nose, gapes, retches) when exposed to an unpleasant taste and pleasure responses (e.g., sniffing, salivating, licking mouth) when exposed to a pleasant taste.

question

In a conditioned taste aversion study, we are most likely to see compound potentiation when a salient _______ is paired with a less salient _______.

answer

flavor; odor

question

an exaptation is

answer

an inherited functional trait that was not selected for the function it currently performs.

question

the term "module" refers to

answer

a specialized cognitive mechanism that has evolved to handle a specific type of input.

question

Ethologists and psychologists would likely find common ground in the assumption that

answer

learning is capable of modifying and enhancing inherited behaviors and predispositions

question

which of the following fundamental phenomena have researchers failed to demonstrate in honeybees?

answer

conditioned inhibition

question

which learning theory approach best describes learning about causes?

answer

no particular approach, because all associative learning theories are challenged by the problem of how to represent causal power

question

1. Disgust is the part of our nature that deals with _____________.

answer

repulsion or revulsion

question

where did disgust arise from?

answer

our animal ancestors

question

one of the theories stated that disgust arose as an adaptive trait in

answer

disease-avoidance behavior (aka pathogen avoidance)

question

4. During our evolution of ultrasociality disgust took on a role to:

answer

punish antisocial behavior and those who broke social rules

question

5. Why did disgust arise in our ancestors?

answer

to help identify objects and situations associated with infections

question

the author of the disgust article argues that there are three practical reasons for better understanding disgust

answer

Disgust can be harnessed to improve health, disgust has important implications for psychological well-being, and disgust is a moral emotion that influences social behaviors.

question

Disgust has important implications for psychological welfare. In which disorder does disgust play a role?

answer

both a & b

question

how does disgust impact our lives?

answer

all of the above

question

1. Without ________ and _________, infectious diseases would cause more morbidity and mortality in our own species.

answer

disgust; hygienic behaviors

question

2. The human disgust behavior towards dirty water is a result of which type of disease?

answer

faecal-oral infectios

question

disgust plays a major role in

answer

public health

question

The article put a lot of emphasis on a certain behaviors that developed to help prevent disease. What behaviors was the author referring to?

answer

hygienic behaviors, such as handwashing and keeping one's environment clean

question

those with lower disgust sensitivity

answer

suffer more from infectious diseases

question

6. Leprosy, polio, smallpox, plague and guinea worm were major causes of ____________ in previous centuries; they are now rare or eradicated, thanks to recent control efforts.

answer

both a & b

question

7. Which of the following was consistently reported to be the most powerful motivator of hand washing with soap after going to the toilet?

answer

the idea that fecal material might be present on hands

question

8. Which of the following diseases does not involve a disgust elicitor?

answer

malaria

question

what 6 conditions cause most deaths?

answer

diarrhoeal diseases, acute respiratory tract infections, malaria, measles, HIV and tuberculosis

question

Diarrheal diseases still kill an estimated 1.5 million children every year. Human feces are the main source of infections. Evidence suggests that hand washing with soap, were it practiced globally, could save over million lives a year, mainly from the infectious enteric diseases. Electronic sensors showed that only _______ of men and _____of women in the UK washed their hands with soap after using a public toilet.

answer

32%; 64%

question

1. It might be expected that contamination anxiety would become more severe when disease reminders become __________.

answer

more prevalent

question

2. What psychological disorder can accompany unfortunate disgust situations?

answer

OCD

question

3. Which of the following is not a psychological disorder/condition that is characterized by high levels of disgust?

answer

schizophrenia

question

4. What percentage of OCD patients present with contamination fears?

answer

50%

question

5. Those who are too easily disgusted might be predicted to manifest which of the following

answer

phobias

question

disgust sensitivity ___________

answer

varies in strength from one individual to another

question

7. OCD patients with contamination fears DO NOT have which concerns?

answer

the idea that everything will kill them

question

which psychological disorder has the disgust emotion been linked with

answer

a & b

question

1. What term describes the disease avoiding strategy of avoiding outsiders?

answer

xenophobia

question

humans tend to shun other individuals that show signs of

answer

disease

question

3. Appropriate disease-avoidance strategies include all of the following except...

answer

sustained social proximity with outsiders

question

people who are more concerned with disease are

answer

all of the above

question

marginalizing outsiders of groups is called

answer

stigmatization

question

6. The author of the disgust article discussed how those who argue against abortion, homosexuality, and genetically-modified foods exploit the language and imagery of disgust to "contaminate" ideas and opposition, just as racists and nationalists might label an outsider or an out-group as "dirty" and "diseased" to elicit a disgust-reaction. What did the author recommend as the best defense against such manipulative tactics?

answer

to first understand what is happening and then expose such strategies to the light of public revulsion

question

7. A person who is hypervigilant to cues of disgust will avoid people who...

answer

have disabilities or disfigurements

question

other than humans, what other species shun individuals that display signs of disease?

answer

all of the above

question

9. Cultural groups that have historically faced high rates of parasite stress tend to ___________.

answer

be xenophobic

question

10. Given that parasites tend to specialize in exploiting the particular biochemical and morphological features of their hosts, parasite transmission most likely occurs between:

answer

biologically similar organisms

question

1. What did the United Kingdom student survey say they were most morally disgusted by?

answer

murder, torture, rape, pedophilia, bullying, incest, theft, cannibalism

question

necrophilia, incest, and cannibalism are all common examples of

answer

moral disgust

question

what remains a major task for social scientists?

answer

understanding disgust's part in the morality puzzle

question

4. _____ disgust is one of the major positive forces that builds, maintains, and polices the cooperative societies in which we have to thrive.

answer

moral

question

5. A recent study at a UK school showed that students find activities such as rape, murder, and necrophilia to be some of the 'most' morally disgusting activities. What theory or theories do the researchers discuss to explain this?

answer

all of the above

question

6. A number of studies have suggested that physiological disgust can affect:

answer

moral judgment

question

7. Nussbaum argues that we should distrust our disgust responses because

answer

both a & b

question

8. On a survey from teenagers at one UK school which crime was NOT found to be morally disgusting?

answer

voyeurism

question

the emotion of disgust plays a major role in our decision making in what is right and wrong

answer

true

question

10. What reason(s) does the author mention that links disgust to our implicit sense of morality?

answer

all of the above

question

11. What plays a major and visceral role in our response to wrongdoing, exploitation, and injustice?

answer

disgust

question

12. Nussbaum argues we should ____ our disgust responses because they can lead to ___.

answer

distrust; prejudice and discrimination

question

what should you take away from the article on why disgust matters?

answer

disgust is an emotion, and we need to view and understand it as a disease avoidance mechanism

question

2. All emotions, including disgust, should include what features?

answer

include a set of triggers to engage the emotional process

question

3. The author explains how disgust can be a "double edged sword." It can protect us from diseases but also cause us to ___?

answer

create phobias towards certain social groups

question

studying disgust helps us better understand the problems of

answer

all of the above

question

5. One of the main deductions from the author is that certain diseases aren't being funded or even looked into because of the disgust factor. What is one of the pieces of evidence given for this conclusion?

answer

diseases related to diarrhea only receive a fraction of the funding that diseases like malaria receive

question

6. What is possibly the most important intellectual challenge faced by scientists today?

answer

understanding the function of the brain

question

7. The voice of _______ is there for a reason, it guides us to behave in ways that are good for our genes, or more precisely, to behave in ways that were good for the genes of our ancestors.

answer

emotion

question

the number two killer of children in the world today is

answer

diarrhoeal diseases

question

9. Though diarrhoeal diseases are the number two killer of children in the world today, they still attract only a fraction of the research funds that go to

answer

both a & b

question

what does the author believe about disgust?

answer

all of the above

question

behavior chain

answer

A sequence of behaviors that is theoretically put together with the help of discriminative stimuli that reinforce the preceding behavior and set the occasion for the next behavior.

question

behavioral economics

answer

An approach that incorporates economic principles in understanding operant behavior.

question

behavioral regulation theory

answer

The view that an organism will work to maintain a preferred distribution of behavior. See response deprivation hypothesis; bliss point.

question

bliss point

answer

An organism's preferred distribution of behavior.

question

chained schedule

answer

A set of two or more reinforcement schedules, each signaled by its own discriminative stimulus, that must be completed in sequence before the primary reinforcer occurs.

question

complements

answer

Two or more commodities or reinforcers that "go together" in the sense that increasing the price of one will decrease the demand for both of them. For example, chips and salsa; bagels and cream cheese.

question

compound schedules

answer

A procedure in which two or more schedules operate, such as a multiple schedule or a chained schedule.

question

concurrent schedule

answer

A situation in which the organism can choose between two or more different operant behaviors; each behavior pays off according to its own schedule of reinforcement.

question

conditioned/secondary reinforcer

answer

A stimulus that has acquired the capacity to reinforce behavior through its association with a primary reinforcer.

question

contiguity theory

answer

Guthrie's idea that learning depends on a stimulus and response occurring together in time rather than depending on reinforcement.

question

contingency management

answer

Behavioral treatment of unwanted behavior in humans that works by manipulating the contingency between the behavior (and its alternatives) and reinforcement. For example, smoking can be decreased if the smoker is reinforced with vouchers or prizes for abstaining from smoking.

question

continuous reinforcement schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered after each response.

question

cumulative record

answer

A graph in which the cumulative number of operant responses is plotted as a function of time. The slope of the line gives the rate of responding. Usually created by a cumulative recorder.

question

cumulative recorder

answer

A device used to analyze operant behavior in which a pen that rides on a slowly-moving piece of paper is deflected upward with each response (press of a lever, for example). This creates a graph or cumulative record which shows the cumulative number of responses as a function of time.

question

delay discounting

answer

The decrease in the subjective value of a reinforcer that occurs when the reinforcer is delayed in time.

question

demand curve

answer

A graph showing the demand for a product at different prices. In behavioral economics, the amount of a commodity (or reinforcer) that is taken when the experimenter varies the amount of work that is required to earn it.

question

discriminative stimulus

answer

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether or not the response will be reinforced. It is said to "set the occasion" for the operant response.

question

drive

answer

A theoretical construct that corresponds to motivation arising from biological needs, such as the need for food or water.

question

fading

answer

A procedure in which a prompt or discriminative stimulus for a desired behavior is gradually withdrawn so that the organism is able to emit the behavior without the prompt.

question

fixed interval schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed (since the last reinforcer) is reinforced.

question

fixed ratio schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which a fixed number of responses is required for the delivery of each reinforcer.

question

interval schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which a response is reinforced only if it occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer.

question

latent learning experiment

answer

An experiment by Tolman and Honzik (1930) in which animals were not rewarded during initial trials, and then were rewarded for correct responding in a second phase. After the first rewarded trial, the rats began responding efficiently, as if they had previously been learning without reward. Although the reward was not necessary for learning, it did appear necessary to motivate performance.

question

learning/performance distinction

answer

The idea that learning is not the same as performance, and that behavior may not always be an accurate indicator of knowledge.

question

matching law

answer

A principle of choice behavior which states that the proportion of responses directed toward one alternative will equal (match) the percentage of reinforcers that are earned by performing that alternative.

question

melioration

answer

An explanation of matching which claims that the organism will always respond so as to improve the local rate of reinforcement. This ultimately leads to a steady state of behavior that matches the rates of reinforcement on the two alternatives.

question

minimum distance model

answer

A model of operant behavior which states that when given any reinforcement schedule, the organism will respond in a way that gets it as close as possible to the bliss point.

question

multiple schedule

answer

A procedure in which two or more reinforcement schedules, each signaled by its own discriminative stimulus, are presented one at a time and alternated.

question

precommitment strategy

answer

A method for decreasing impulsiveness and increasing self-control in which the individual makes choices well in advance.

question

premack principle

answer

The idea that reinforcement is possible when a less-preferred behavior will allow access to a more-preferred behavior.

question

primary reinforcer

answer

An event that unconditionally reinforces operant behavior without any particular training.

question

quantitative law of effect

answer

A more general, but still quantitative, statement of the matching law in which an operant response is viewed as being chosen over all other potential responses.

question

ratio schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which the delivery of each reinforcer depends on the number of responses the organism has performed since the last reinforcer.

question

reinforcement theory

answer

A phrase used to describe learning theories, like Thorndike's, which assume that reinforcement is necessary for learning.

question

response deprivation hypothesis

answer

The idea that restricting access to a behavior below its baseline or preferred level will make access to that behavior a positive reinforcer.

question

schedule of reinforcement

answer

A relationship between an operant behavior and its consequences or payoff. See ratio, interval, and concurrent schedules.

question

sd (s-)

answer

A discriminative stimulus that suppresses operant responding because it signals a decrease in the availability of reinforcement or sets the occasion for not responding.

question

stimulus control

answer

When operant behaviors are controlled by the stimuli that precede them.

question

stimulus elements

answer

Theoretical stimuli or features that make up more complex stimuli.

question

stimulus sampling theory

answer

A mathematical theory proposed by Estes which extended Guthrie's idea of stimulus elements.

question

substitutability

answer

A way of conceptualizing the relationships between different reinforcers or commodities as substitutes, complements, and independents.

question

substitutes

answer

Two or more commodities or reinforcers that can replace or be exchanged for one another, as demonstrated when increasing the price of one of them will decrease the consumption of it and increase demand for the other. For example, Coke and Pepsi.

question

superstitious behavior

answer

A behavior that increases in strength or frequency because of accidental pairings with a reinforcer.

question

variable interval schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which the behavior is reinforced the first time it occurs after a variable amount of time since the last reinforcer.

question

variable ratio schedule

answer

A schedule of reinforcement in which a variable number of responses are required for delivery of each reinforcer.

question

1. Edwin Guthrie argued that learning occurs as a gradual process because

answer

only a small set of stimulus elements get connected to the response on each trial

question

2. Which instrumental learning theorist assumed that behavior is inherently flexible and goal-oriented, and that instrumental associations also involve S-O associations?

answer

Edward Tolman

question

Skinner assumed that reinforcement is powerful enough to

answer

produce superstitious responding when delivered noncontingently

question

4. The procedure of fading involves gradual changes in

answer

stimulus complexity, from simple to more complex

question

in operant conditioning, the stimulus that sets the occasion for a response to be nonreinforced is a

answer

SΔ

question

a behavior chain is

answer

a sequence of behaviors controlled by a primary reinforcer and conditioned reinforcers.

question

7. Which schedule results in a primary reinforcer after every target behavior is emitted?

answer

CRF

question

8. A rat gets a food pellet every time it presses a lever five times. The rat is on a(n) _______ schedule.

answer

FR

question

9. A pigeon pecks a red key and is reinforced for a peck after either 5 seconds, 10 seconds, 15 seconds, 25 seconds, 30 seconds, or 40 seconds, with these times arranged in random order. The pigeon is on a(n) _______ schedule.

answer

VI

question

10. In general, the schedule that produces the highest and most stable rate of responding is the _______ schedule.

answer

VR

question

11. A food vending machine presents a variety of options, many with different prices. Choosing between the food options can be seen as an example of a _______ schedule.

answer

concurrent

question

12. Which statement is inconsistent with Hull's theory of learning?

answer

drive induction is assumed to stamp in associations

question

13. Premack assumed that a reinforcement contingency is a relation between

answer

a more-preferred and less-preferred behavior

question

14. The behavioral version of selection by consequences assumes that

answer

reinforcement prevents some behaviors from becoming extinguished

question

1. Some of the players say they are not superstitious, but they are just following a _________.

answer

ritual

question

2. It is said that no major sport has as many ________ as __________.

answer

superstitions; baseball

question

3. After receiving a death threat the Tony La Russa used to wear a _______ under his warm up jacket.

answer

bulletproof vest

question

4. What do some players claim their weird behavior to be?

answer

rituals

question

5. What is the cause of baseball players being so superstitious suggested by pitcher Kyle Snyder?

answer

a lot is left up to chance

question

which answer is false?

answer

a. Carl Yastrzemski, Red Sox, wore the same red socks for about 17 years

question

which of the following superstitious behaviors was not mentioned in the article?

answer

not shaving during road trips if the team was on a winning streak

question

what number did larry walker have a certain affinity for during his playing days?

answer

3

question

9. Which ballplayer earned the nickname "The Human Rain Delay" due to his lengthy at bat routine?

answer

mike hargrove

question

10. Carl Yastrzemski never changed his ______________.

answer

socks

question

11. ____________ wore a bulletproof vest due to a threat but subsequently wore it after when his team went on a winning streak.

answer

tony larussa

question

12. Wily Mo Pena ________________ his bat before every at bat.

answer

bit

question

13. Yaz never changed his red socks, he wore them from the start of 1967- ______.

answer

1973

question

14. Wade Boggs would __________ before every game.

answer

eat chicken

question

15. Hall of Fame Richie Ashburn used to sleep with his ________.

answer

bat

question

16. Third baseman Mike Lowell does not chew gum while batting because:

answer

he struck out while chewing gum when he was 8 years old

question

17. Mike Lowell also takes four warm-up swings in the on-deck circle. Why?

answer

that behavior was reinforced in high school by getting 4 hits in one game

question

18. All of the players talked about and interviewed in this article have one thing in common. What is it?

answer

all of the players complete their routines whether they win or lose, because it worked for them at least once before

question

19. What does a baseball player not do during a no-hitter?

answer

talk to the pitcher

question

20. What was the reason for Mike Lowell's superstition about chewing gum and hitting?

answer

he once struck out while chewing gum

question

21. What does Mike Timlin say about why routines are so strong in baseball?

answer

they make players comfortable

question

22. What does Dick Stuart do before he bats?

answer

throw his used gum across the plate

question

23. Why does Kyle Snyder think that there is so much superstition in baseball?

answer

there is so much in the game that is left to chance

question

24. Why does Manny Ramirez lead the team onto the field?

answer

he likes to

question

25. Richie Ashburn used to..

answer

sleep with his baseball bat

question

26. Steve Finley and Darin Erstad wore ____ to ward off injuries

answer

mineral pouches

question

27. Wily Mo Peña is known for the wackiest superstitious routine because....

answer

he sniffs the pine tar on the handle of his bat, once he gets to the meat of the bat he bites it with his teeth and then gives it a kiss

question

1. Researchers from a variety of disciplines have argued that superstition often grows out of ______.

answer

uncertainty

question

2. When asked how often they engaged in superstitious behavior, 53.3% of the players indicated ______.

answer

every game

question

3. According to the study, the surveys were limited to ______.

answer

major league players only

question

4. Why would superstition be less likely on a Japanese baseball team?

answer

both a and b

question

5.What percent of players believe that superstitions were often or always effective?

answer

27.3%

question

6. Which of these is not a reason that baseball players may not have confidence in their superstition?

answer

they have proof that their superstition does not work

question

7. Superstitious behavior is especially prevalent among certain groups of people such as..

answer

all of the above

question

8. Although superstitious behavior was common among baseball players, the players were...

answer

not confident in the power of their superstitious behavior

question

9. In hindsight, we may have overlooked the fact that

answer

major league baseball players typically believe they can make a fielding play virtually every time a ball is hit

question

10. What were the two main focuses of their investigation into superstitious behavior?

answer

both a & c

question

11. Which statement most accurately describes the relationship between Japanese and American players?

answer

the american players were more superstitious than japanese players. however, american players were not significantly more likely than japanese players to believe their superstitious behavior had an impact

question

12. Which statement most accurately describes the researcher's findings on the uncertainty hypothesis?

answer

the widespread use of superstition in baseball is consistent with the uncertainty hypothesis. however, the prediction that players are less superstitious about fielding outcomes that batting and pitching outcomes does not follow from the uncertainty hypothesis

question

13. The uncertainty hypothesis maintains that the more people attribute outcomes to chance or luck, the more likely it is that they will turn to __________.

answer

superstition

question

14. What percentage of players listed at least one superstition before or during a game?

answer

74.3%

question

15. Japanese players are more likely to embrace the notion that their performance is the result of effort not _________.

answer

luck

question

16. One concern researchers raised was the difference between superstition and _____________.

answer

ritual

question

17. Players were less superstitious about ______________ than __________ and _____________

answer

fielding; hitting and pitching

question

18. _______________were more superstitious than ________________ but ______________ believed that superstitions actually worked.

answer

americans; japanese; both

question

19. Which prediction about superstitious behavior in pro baseball did the authors not make?

answer

the most successful players are the most superstitious

question

20. What percent of pro baseball players engage in at least one example of superstitious behavior during or before a game?

answer

74

question

21. Which of the following is not an example of Japanese baseball cultural differences?

answer

diplomatic behavior with umpires towards missed calls

question

22. Superstitious behavior is especially prevalent among which 3 of these groups of people?

answer

baseball players, college students, gamblers

question

23. Researchers from a variety of disciplines agree argue that superstition

answer

often grows out of uncertainty

question

24.The uncertainty hypothesis consists of _________ and _______ forces.

answer

controllable and uncontrollable

question

25. The more the players engage in superstitious behavior the more they believed in ______during the game.

answer

luck

question

26. Japanese players are more likely to believe in ______ rather than _______.

answer

effort; luck

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