DOWNIE FINAL OPEN RESPONSE – Flashcards

1. Hydroelectricity 2. Solar 3. Geothermal 4. Wind 5. Burning municipal solid waste 6. Nuclear 1. Make climate conscious political decisions 2. Eat less read meat 3. Purchase green electricity 4. Make your home and household energy efficient 5. Buy energy and water efficient appliances 6. Walk, cycle, or take public transportation 7. Recycle, re-use and avoid useless purchases 8. Buy local produce 9. Telecommute and teleconference 10. Offset what you cant save

1. China 1. Austrailia 2. U.S. 2.U.S. 3.E.U. 3. Canada 4. India 4. Saudi Arabia

To stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

List 3 of these: Common but differentiated responsibilities; equity; precautionary principle; cost effective; and sustainable development.

• Reduce current emissions • Avoid future emissions • Capture and sequester current emissions • Protect current sinks • Increase current sinks

• Technological (e.g. sea defense, infrastructure, building design) • Behavioral (e.g. altered food and recreational choices) • Managerial (e.g. altered farm practices) • Policy (e.g. planning & regulation)

1.20 percent co2 reductions by 2020 2. 20 percent renewable energy by 2020 3. energy efficiency

• Impact of the environmental problem on state • Impact of state on the environmental problem • Adjustment costs • Power in other issues - if they can be connected (Especially economic resources) • Diplomatic Ability • Ability to help with solutions in particular issue-area; e.g. money, expertise, specific technology. • Economic Profile and Resources: Level of Development, Resource Base, Industrial Profile, Transportation Systems, Geographic Location, etc. • Importance/influence of economic interests/domestic industry involved in contributing to problem and/or solving the problem. • Importance/influence of public opinion/organized action on issue (NGOs). • Political /policy making structure of state

Answer: (any 4 of these) • Failure to cost-in environmental degradation / externalities • Incentives that favor raw resource extraction over resource recycling • High levels of consumption and consumerism • WTO Free Trade rules that in some cases might restrict domestic environmental policy that also impact imports • Rewarding Lowest-cost production on a global scale regardless of environmental impact

1. Nation States ( USA) 2. The Public 3. Scientific Body (IPCC) 4. International Organizations (UNEP) 5. Environmental Non-Governmental Organizations individual and networks NGO's (e.g. CAN) 6. Groups of states- EU (goes with states in that there is individual state influence as well as groups)

- Reduction goal: 10% below level emitted in 1990 by Jan.1, 2020 Renewable energy: 27% increase by 2020 The Commissioner of Environmental Protection shall consult with the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers to establish a date for the long-term regional goal of reducing the emissions of greenhouse gas by seventy-five to eighty-five per cent below 2001 levels. If the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers has not established a date for such long-term regional goal by January 1, 2007, the date for reaching such goal shall be 2050. (1) Not later than January 1, 2020, to a level at least ten per cent below the level emitted in 1990; and (2) Not later than January 1, 2050, to a level at least eighty per cent below the level emitted in 2001. (3) All of the levels referenced in this subsection shall be determined by the Commissioner of Environmental Protection (a) The Commissioner of Environmental Protection shall, with the advice and assistance of a nonprofit association organized to provide scientific, technical, analytical and policy support to the air quality and climate programs of northeastern states: (1) Not later than December 1, 2009, publish an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions to establish a baseline for such emissions for the state and publish a summary of greenhouse gas emission reduction strategies on the Department of Environmental Protection's Internet web site, (2) not later than July 1, 2010, publish results of various modeling scenarios concerning greenhouse gas emissions, including, but not limited to, an evaluation of the potential economic and environmental benefits and opportunities for economic growth based on such scenarios, (3) not later than July 1, 2011, analyze greenhouse gas emission reduction strategies and, after an opportunity for public comment, make recommendations on which such strategies will achieve the greenhouse gas emission levels specified in section 22a-200a, as amended by this act, and (4) not later than July 1, 2012, and every three years thereafter, develop, with an opportunity for public comment, a schedule of recommended regulatory actions by relevant agencies, policies and other actions necessary to show reasonable further progress towards achieving the greenhouse gas emission levels specified in section 22a-200a, as amended by this act.

1. Depletion in the Ozone layer 2. Decrease in world fisheries 3.weather variability, possibly resulting from climate change, is having a serious effect on international food prices. 4. decrease in polar ice caps -Shrinking glaciers, heat waves, stronger hurricanes, increased cardiopulmonary disease exacerbations

1. Rapid arctic sea ice decline 2.Extreme weather 3.Security- Environment and security 4. Health 5. Economics 6.Policy Impacts 7. Species Extinction -Arctic sea ice melting, changes in temperature, changes in extreme events (droughts/floods/storms), water scarcity, animal extinctions increased, agricultural problems, human health, national security

1. Campaigning and organizing public protests. 2. Lobbying policymakers- domestic and international negotiations 3.Participating in negotiations- speaking to plenary 4. Information exchange- to public, media, other delegations 5.Research- Policy research and development - --raising public awareness about particular issues and conducting education campaigns --influencing governments to accept a more advanced position on an issue --providing reporting services --bringing lawsuits to compel national action on an issue --organizing consumer boycotts to pressure international corporations

As the IPCC stated, "neither adaptation nor mitigation alone can avoid all climate change impacts; however, they can compliment each other and together can significantly reduce the risks of climate change". Adaptation is necessary in the short and longer term even for the lowest stabilization scenarios assessed. Unmitigated climate change would, in the long term, be likely to exceed capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt- thus adaptation without mitigation would be ineffective in the long term. -Adaptation and mitigation can complement each other and significantly reduce risks of climate change. We need to adapt as well because climate change is not just going to go away completely. Experts believe we need to make adjustments such as growing crops that are more tolerant to the new climate. We need to find solutions to reduce and prevent GHG as well as find ways to adapt to it on the way.

-The rules of international environmental law have developed in pursuit of two opposing principles: states have sovereign rights over their natural resources; and states must not cause damage to the environment beyond their boarder. -The first element, sovereignty, reflects the preeminent position of states in the international legal community. The second element, environmental protection, places liits on the exercise of sovereign rights. In an environmentally interdependent world, activities in one state almost inevitably produce effects in other states or in areas beyond national jurisdiction (such as high seas) -These objectives are reflected in principle 21 of the Stockholm declaration and principle 2 of the rio declaration and provide the foundation for environmental law. The responsibility to prevent damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyond national jurisdiction, in the form of principle 21 and 2, has been accepted as an obligation by all states. The international court of justice has now confirmed that this element also reflects customary international law.

(a)Industrialized country parties agreed to reduce their collective emissions of six GHG's by atleast 5 percent below 1990 levels by 2012. (b) 1.clean development mechanism 2. Joint Implementation 3. Emissions trading

(A)1. Green house gases 2. Carbon dioxide 3. Methane 4.Ozone 5. Nitrous oxide (b) the trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower atmosphere due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet's surface. -The greenhouse gas effect is when thermal radiation is absorbed by these gases and re-radiated back towards the surface and lower atmosphere. This results in increased average surface temperature.

Ground measurements- thermometers, Satellite measurements-- measure temps in lower and upper atmosphere, Weather buoys, proxy records for older record-- tree rings, coral growth, isotopic composition of snow/ice glaciers.

- Summer time melting of Arctic sea ice has accelerated far beyond the expectations of climate models. Thus area of sea ice melt during 2007-2013 was about 40 % greater than the average prediction from IPCC AR4 climate models. - A wide array of satellite and ice measurements demonstrate beyond doubt that both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are losing mass at an increasing rate. Melting of glaciers and ice caps in other parts of the world have also accelerated since 1990. -IPCC conclusion: over the last two decades, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been losing mass, glaciers have continued to shrink almost worldwide, and arctic sea ice and northern hemisphere spring snow have continued to decrease in extent. -lead to a 3 foot sea level rise, 45 percent loss of U.S. coastal wetlands -The Arctic Sea Ice is melting. We see data from satellite observations over the years that the ice is melting and decreasing in mass. This ice melting is contributing to the sea level rise. Sea level rise leads to coastal erosion, pollution, storm damage and flooding.

- Created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (wmo) and the United Nations Environment Program- at request of world governments- to assess scientific and socio-economic information relevant to understanding human induced climate cange so governments can make policy. -Divided into three working groups: 1. WG I: Scientific Basis 2. WG II: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability 3. WG III: mitigation The IPCC is charged with providing independent scientific on the complex issue of climate change. Creation of IPCC was an attempt to establish a common factual basis for negotiations that would focus on policy options. Failed to establish consensus on the economics of the problem -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change. It was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the world with a clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts. In the same year, the UN General Assembly endorsed the action by WMO and UNEP in jointly establishing the IPCC. The IPCC is a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations (UN). It reviews and assesses the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change. It does not conduct any research nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters. Thousands of scientists from all over the world contribute to the work of the IPCC on a voluntary basis. Review is an essential part of the IPCC process, to ensure an objective and complete assessment of current information. IPCC aims to reflect a range of views and expertise. The Secretariat coordinates all the IPCC work and liaises with Governments. It is supported by WMO and UNEP and hosted at WMO headquarters in Geneva. The IPCC is an intergovernmental body. It is open to all member countries of the United Nations (UN) and WMO. Currently 195 countries are members of the IPCC. Governments participate in the review process and the plenary Sessions, where main decisions about the IPCC work programme are taken and reports are accepted, adopted and approved. The IPCC Bureau Members, including the Chair, are also elected during the plenary Sessions. Because of its scientific and intergovernmental nature, the IPCC embodies a unique opportunity to provide rigorous and balanced scientific information to decision makers. By endorsing the IPCC reports, governments acknowledge the authority of their scientific content. The work of the organization is therefore policy-relevant and yet policy-neutral, never policy-prescriptive.

-Objective: "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Achieve this within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally,to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner. - Principles: in their actions to achieve the objective of the convention and to implement its provisions, the Parties shall be guided inter alia by the following: - The parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent, or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures. -Article 3 of the UNFCCC sets forth various guiding principles for actions by the parties to achieve the objective of the UNFCCC, including common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), precaution, and cost‐effectiveness. These principles are intended to provide guidance to parties and are stated in hortatory ("should") rather than mandatory ("shall") terms. The inclusion of the term "inter alia" in the chapeau of Article 3 suggests that the list of principles in article 3 is not intended to be exhaustive, and that future actions by the parties might also be guided by other considerations not explicitly elaborated. -(B) Common but differentiated responsibilities, equity, precautionary principle, cost effective, and sustainable development.

• -Clean Development Mechanism: The CDM is a procedure under the Kyoto Protocol under which developed countries may finance or invest in projects that avoid greenhouse-gas emissions in developing countries, and receive credits for doing so that they may apply towards meeting mandatory limits on their own emissions. • -Joint implementation: Joint implementation is similar to the CDM, but instead of involving cooperation between developed and developing countries, it involves industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition • -Emissions trading: whereby an party with excess emissions credits sells its credits to another party unable to meet its commitments.

Climate change affects the vulnerable and the poor (the ones who have done the least have been hit the hardest). It also compromises the common good of all people and is a major obstacle in the eradication of poverty.

Cost is what is really going to get people to become more energy efficient. People are most interested in what they can do to save money and if using less electricity or a different type of energy efficient energy helps this then they will make lifestyle changes. They will begin to decrease emissions through conservation, substitution and innovation. Without a price no one will change any of their actions because they do not have to. Due to a carbon cost gas prices will raise and people will begin to use their cars less.

• Reduce current emissions • Avoid future emissions • Capture and sequester current emissions • Protect current sinks • Increase current sinks

Technological (e.g. sea defense, infrastructure, building design) • Behavioral (e.g. altered food and recreational choices) • Managerial (e.g. altered farm practices) • Policy (e.g. planning & regulation)

When one environmental issue may exacerbate problems to another issue (climate change threatens millions of species with extinction, making the preservation of biodiversity more difficult) Interconnections can also create obstacles if addressing one problem causes another problem to worsen (dams produce electricity without burning fossil fuels, but they cause habitat loss and impact river animal and fish populations)

How do we know the world is warming? • Studying data collected over many years • ground measurements: thermometers • satellite measurements: measure temps in lower and upper atmosphere • weather buoys • Proxy records for older records: tree rings, coral growth, isotopic composition of snow/ice cores Policy relevant information? Yes there is reliable information to prove these changes are occurring because we can make measurements and observations. For example thermometers can measure the temperatures. Also testing the acidity of the water is a test that is easily done and can prove the seas are becoming more acidic from carbon dioxide.

We can observe correlations by using ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland. This is extremely strong evidence because it goes back 600,000 years. Data plotted over many years from thermometers shows that the temperature of the Earth is increasing. These ice cores can show us when the aount of CO2 increased and we have records from temperatures. Also strong evidence of GHG causing global warming is from the greenhouse effect. These gases are known to trap heat and radiate it back on the lower atmosphere. Since the industrial revolution GHG concentrations have increased markedly and in the past 20 years the 10 warmest years occurred.

1. Increased GHG emissions causes the incoming radiation to become trapped. It has been proven that the resulting increase in trapped radiation is causing the oceans to warm and the sea levels to rise. As the ocean warms it expands and sea level rises. As humans add more CO2 to the environment then this increases the GHG effect that has been proven by scientists. 2. Ocean acidity has increased as the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about 2 billion tons per year. Humans are increasing the CO2 and when CO2 absorbs in the ocean it becomes carbonic acid. This effect of climate change can be tested easily. 3. Since the Industrial Revolution there has been proof of a dramatic increase in GHGs in the air. Scientists are able to pull up ice cores from 650,000 years ago and see the connection between increased temperature and increased CO2. This data shows that after the IR happened the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere increased along with the temperature. More extreme weather events, such as extreme flooding are occurring because of the alteration in the hydrologic cycle. This alteration has been scientifically linked to the increased trapping of heat due to the increase in GHG emissions.

Climate change impacts national security because it will cause greater global instability, hunger and poverty. This could lead to acute food and water shortages as well as an increase in pandemic diseases. As resources begin to dwindle the threat to America's national security will increase. Water is a necessity and if there is a shortage it could lead to war. From powerpoint: Climate change will affect military in two ways. It will affect the infrastructure including the bases because of threats such as a rising sea level and melting permafrost. Secondly climate change could accelerate conflict and increase instability in the world.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, created in 1988 by the WMO and the UNEP, assesses scientific and socio-economic information relevant to understanding human-induced climate change so governments can make policy. It was created to eliminate the disputes against science so that states can work toward fixing the climate change problem rather than the disagreements about whether or not the science is right. How does it work/why should it be believed? The president is elected by all the governments. Lead authors in each working group. Lead authors in specific subgroups of each working group. Teams of global experts write the first draft (400+). 800 additional experts peer review. Governments and more experts review the 2nd and later drafts. Best consensus statement of the scientific community. -President elected by all governments -working groups with lead authors -subgroups in working group with authors -Teams of global experts write first draft (400 people) -800 more experts peer review -Governments and more experts review second draft -Best consensus statement

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The objective is stabilization of emissions at a level that would avoid dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Key principles are common but differentiated responsibilities, equity, precautionary principle, cost-effective, and sustainable development. q

Subsidies are given to an industry or company so that the price of a commodity can remain low. Agricultural and fossil fuel subsidies reduce the incentive for these industries to implement climate change policies because doing so would cost more. Agricultural subsidy programs reduce incentives for farmers to respond to environmental changes because they have disaster assistance for protection against climate variability so they do not need to take adaptive actions. They are designed to reduce flexibility by encouraging farmers to grow subsidized crops rather than adapting to changing conditions, including climate change. Fossil fuel subsidies create incentives-where investment in carbon-intensive energy is favoured, undermining attempts to put a price on carbon, which is a climate change initiative.

The idea is to cut emissions by 2020 to a level that could keep 21st century rise under 2 degrees C. The gap is the difference between 2020 actual levels of emissions and the levels of emissions for 2020 based on current emission reduction pledges by all individual countries. Yes we can mitigate GHG enough to avoid serious impacts. The Emissions Gap Report 2013 states that the gap is still closable and everyone needs to act now. It also discusses that if we do go above the two degree celsius limit then there are risks of irreversible damage to the environment. Although it is expressed that it is still possible to bridge the gap by increasing ambition by all countries, tightening rules for climate pledges, and expanding the scope of pledges.

After the failure of the Copenhagen climate negotiation many began to doubt the the UNFCCC. People began to wonder if the UN process is able to deal with the complex task of facilitating an agreement on climate change. At this point many stated to look towards corporations outside the UNFCCC with reduced number of members and issues. This was when "climate change clubs" began to increase. An example is The Climate and Clean Air Coalition and their main initiative is to reduce short lived climate pollutants.

At the UN Climate Change Conference in 2013 (Warsaw) governments made key decisions toward a worldwide climate change agreement for 2015. The two objectives of 2015 are stated as "First, to bind nations together into an effective global effort to reduce emissions rapidly enough to chart humanity's longer-term path out of the danger zone of climate change, while building adaptation capacity. Second, to stimulate faster and broader action now." After coming up with these expectations for 2015, government's at Warsaw agreed to communicate their respective contributions towards the universal agreement well in advance of the meeting in Paris in 2015.

UNFCCC Kyoto Bali agreement Cancun agreement Copenhagen accord 2015 Paris?

USA 17% from 2005 levels by 2020 Canada 17% from 2005 levels by 2020 Japan 25% from 1990 levels by 2020

In 2011 the Chinese government devoted attention to establishing a new set of targets and policies for 2011-2015. The first goal is a 16% reduction in energy intensity. The second is increasing non-fossil energy to 11.4 percent of total energy use. The last is a 17% reduction in carbon intensity. slides: set a goal to reduce carbon emissions per unit of GDP by 40-45% from 2005 levels by 2020. Actions to cut emissions will include developing renewable and nuclear power technologies. China is or will likely soon be leading installation of wind and solar and has indicated aggressive pursuit of electric cars.

Reducing energy intensity, capping emissions, slowing pollution from coal power plants, resisting binding targets

Public Nuisance Litigation: Court cases filed by states and environmental groups directly against large sources of GHG emissions. Public nuisance is defined as an unreasonable interference with a right general to the common public. An example of this was when CA filed suit against General Motors and five other car manufacturers saying that the emissions of GHG from the automobiles contributed to the public nuisance of climate change. They claimed that the nuisance was characterized by an enhanced wildfire danger as well as early melting of the snowpack that is critical to the state's water needs. Another example is families living on Mississippi coast that experienced losses from Hurricane Katrina filed against oil and gas, coal and chemical production companies alleging that the damages they sustained from the hurricane had been aggravated by the defendants GHG emissions.

Power plants are using natural gas more than coal because more of it is available through fracking so the prices have gone down Subsidies for renewables: specifically the federal government tax breaks for wind and solar CAFÉ standards: under US law, the federal government is allowed to order auto manufacturers that all cars they sell have to have an average MPG, trucks don't count Energy efficiency standards: light bulbs in particular Building efficiency: older buildings are being retrofitted

• Different economic profiles of different states: Coal producing states would be opposed. Wyoming produces 40% of the nation's coal, so opposition to cutting GHG emissions there is high. The power of the auto industry in different states, particularly Michigan, influences refusal to reducing carbon pollution. • State politicians who are ideologically opposed to significant government regulation because they either claim they don't believe in climate change or they worry about government involvement • The increasing partisanship in congress resulting from the structure of the primary: largely republican because gerrymandering favors republicans. Republicans tend to be less likely to take climate action

Maine requires that construction and renovation of state building must incorporate "green building" standards for energy efficiency and environmental sustainability. California has been named the dominant early mover because of it's actions against climate change. It has developed an aggressive air quality regime that has policies that have contributed to a significant decline in conventional air contaminants. Massachusetts has the highest score in the State Energy Efiiciency Rankings. This is because they are developing renewable energy and encouraging other alternatives to the combustion of fossil fuels.

NYC policy to reduce, replace, and retrofit City vehicles with improved fuel efficiency. Greener Greater Buildings Plan requires that all buildings meet the current energy code and large buildings to perform energy and water use benchmarking annually. Kansas City, Missouri started by focusing on government operations with the rationale that the government should lead by good example and they have a lot of control over the government's emission. They had 2 phases: · Phase 1: reduction of GHG emissions from city government operations by 30% below year 2000 levels by 2020. This had 32 actions on how to achieve it and was approved in 2007 · Phase 2: community goal of 80% below 2000 levels by 2050 and eventual carbon neutrality Chicago, Illinois adopted a climate plan with goals of increasing energy efficiency in buildings, increasing the production and use of clean and renewable energy, improving transportation, reducing waste and industrial pollution, and preparing for climate adaptation. Most cities are following a standard recommended route for success. This includes getting commitment from city leaders, conducting inventory, setting reduction goal, develop CAP with assistance of community stakeholders

Carbon tax is putting a tax on CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. Those who support this believe that this will decrease emissions tremendously. The hope is that putting a tax on carbon will cause consumers to change their lifestyle choices so that they do not use fossil fuels. The amount of tax has to be substantial enough to cause other people to make changes. If revenue neutral carbon tax is put in place then the government says that they will decrease taxes elsewhere. The carbon tax should be revenue-neutral in order to maximize the incentives to reduce emissions while avoiding "income" effects normally associated with taxes that would drag down economic activity. The revenue return has two primary approaches being discussed. The first one includes revenues through regular equal payments to all US residents. The amount of people's carbon tax would be proportional to their fossil fuel use. This idea creates an incentive to reduce. The other idea for revenue return is a "tax-shift" approach. This states that each dollar of carbon tax revenue would trigger a dollar's worth of reduction. People like carbon tax because it is stable. Businesses and utilities know the price and where it is headed.

Without further action to cut GHG emissions, the costs of adaptation will soar and more expensive action will be needed to protect the world from the damaging effects of climate change. A few of the dangers of climate change include increasing incidence of severe weather events and increased health problems associated with climate change. By cutting GHG emissions to avoid a greater than 2 degree C rise in global temperature, the cost of repairing the damage of climate change will decrease. The costs of repairing damage from severe weather events and the costs of treating the increased illnesses will be less in the future if money is spent now to reduce GHG emissions globally.

In Kolmes' article, he argues that there exists a generally low percentage of Americans who feel they understand climate change science and this is largely a result of corporate disinformation campaigns. Some corporations have used the "dark side of freedom of speech" to spread uncertainty about climate change and slow legislation. Exxon Mobile adopted the tobacco industry's disinformation campaign, which was created to prevent the public from understanding that cigarette smoking is hazardous to your health. He argues that Americans are not confused about climate change because of lack of comprehension or lack of scientific evidence, but because misleading campaigns. These disinformation campaigns have wasted so much time and achieved less societal consensus and action, resulting in lack of prevention of increasing GHG emissions.

Chong argues that climate change has an ambiguous place in public conflict. He says that voters usually are for preservation and growth campaigns but when it comes down to costing more they are against it. He also states that people are reluctant to pay higher taxes for conservation programs. Therefore Chong's argument is that while people are usually supportive of helping the environment, once at the voters ballot they are more concerned with their economic growth.

Buying food from a local food source will reduce freight emissions. Ensure that suppliers are energy efficient. Push for energy efficiency and 100% renewable energy in building and renovating buildings. Companies can reduce transportation emissions by producing lighter, more material efficient products and shipping more products per trip

1. The effects of climate change disproportionately affect the most vulnerable populations. It is unjust that those who have done the least to cause climate change are the ones hit the hardest. 2. By failing to take climate change action, the current generation is spreading the costs of its behavior far into the future. People in the future should not have to pay to clean up our mess. 3. An issue in climate change policy is who should participate in measures to prevent, mitigate, and adapt to climate change. Vulnerable populations need a voice.

Apple recognizes that its business takes a huge amount of energy to design, assemble, and ship its products, therefore the company frequently measures their carbon footprint and promotes energy efficiency into their facilities, products, and transportation Johnson and Johnson sees energy efficiency as an opportunity to reduce energy costs and emissions through their J&J Friendly Energy Policy. Sony has established Green Management 2015, a set of environmental targets in an effort to achieve zero GHG emissions, including 30% reduction in annual energy consumption of products and 14% reduction in CO2.

Consumers can make choices to buy a more energy efficient car or use non-GHG emitting modes of transportation, to recycle, and to abstain from using plastic bags and plastic bottles. They can also choose more energy efficient appliances and electricity choices, solar panels,

Global average temperatures have not risen since 1998. The decade of 2000-2009 is the warmest since measurements have been made. Because there are many factors affecting global average temperatures, there can be periods of stable temperatures interspersed with periods of warming. The high temperatures in 1988 reflect a combination of long-term warming and short-term variability. Periods of relatively constant temperature are not evidence against warming. • GHG emissions are positive because Increasing carbon dioxide will stimulate plant growth and improve agricultural yield; While plant growth is stimulated by increased levels of CO2, the increase must be under equal growing conditions of temperature and availability of water and nutrients. Climate change is causing altered growing conditions, which will likely counter the fertilizing effect of CO2. With rising CO2, increased growth does not occur for all plant species and it may even be negatively impacted.