Developmental Psychology Exam 3 – Flashcards

Involves slow and consistent growth. This is a period of calm before the rapid growth spurt of adolescence. During the elementary school years, children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year until, at the age of 11, the average girl is 4 feet, 10 1/4 inches tall, and the average boy is 4 feet, 9 inches tall. During the middle and late childhood years, children gain about 5 to 7 pounds a year. The weight increase is due mainly to increases in the size of the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as the size of some body organs. Proportional changes are among the most pronounced physical changes in middle and late childhood. Head and waist circumference decrease in relation to body height. A less noticeable physical change is that bones continue to ossify during middle and late childhood, though they still yield to pressure and pull more than do mature bones. Muscle mass and strength gradually increase during these years as "baby fat" decreases. The loose movements and knock-knees of early childhood give way to improved muscle tone. Thanks both to heredity and to exercise, children double their strength capabilities during these years. Because of their greater number of muscle cells, boys are usually stronger than girls.

total brain volume stabilizes by the end of middle and late childhood, but significant changes in various structures and regions of the brain continue to occur. As children develop, activation in some brain areas increases while it decreases in other areas. One shift in activation that occurs is from diffuse, larger areas to more focal, smaller areas. This shift is characterized by synaptic pruning, in which areas of the brain not being used lose synaptic connections and those areas being used show an increase in connections. In one study, researchers found less diffusion and more focal activation in the pre-frontal cortex from 7 to 30 years of age. This shift in activation was accompanied by increased efficiency in cognitive performance, especially cognitive control, which involves effective control and flexibility in a number of areas. These areas include controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts, inhibiting motor actions, and flexibility in switching between competing choices. Leading researchers in developmental cognitive neuroscience have recently proposed that the prefrontal cortex likely orchestrates the functions of many other brain regions during development. As part of this organizational role, the prefrontal cortex may provide and advantage to neural networks and connections that include the prefrontal cortex. In this view, the prefrontal cortex coordinates which neural connections are the most effective for solving a problem at hand.

during middle and late childhood, children's motor skills become much smoother and more coordinated than they were in early childhood. For example, only one child in a thousand can hit a tennis ball over the net at the age of 3, yet by the age of 10 or 11 most children can learn to play the sport. Running, climbing, skipping rope, swimming, etc are just a few of the many physical skills that involve large muscle activity, boys usually out perform girls. Increased myelination of the central nervous system is reflected in the improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood. Children can more adroitly use their hands as tools. Six-year-olds can hammer, paste, tie shoes, and fasten clothes. By 7 years of age, children's hands have become steadier. At this age, children prefer a pencil to crayon for printing, and they reverse letters less often. Printing becomes smaller. At 8 to 10 years of age, they can use their hands independently with more ease and precision. Fine motor coordination develops to the point at which children can write rather than print words. Cursive letter size becomes smaller and more even. At 10 to 12 years of age, children begin to show manipulative skills similar to the abilites of adults. They can master the complex, intricate, and rapid movements needed to produce fine-quality crafts or to play a difficult piece on a musical instrument. Girls usually outperform boys in their use of fine motor skills.

Elementary school children are far from physical maturity, so they need to be active. They become more fatigued by long periods of sitting than by running, etc. Physical action is essential for children this age to refine their developing skills. It is becoming increasingly clear that exercise plays an important role in children's growth and development. Researchers found that exercise is linked to children's cognitive development. For, example, one study revealed that aerobic exercise was linked to increases in an important cognitive activity-planning-in overweight 9 year old children. Ways to get children to exercise: offer more physical activity programs run by volunteers at school facilities, improve physical fitness activities in schools, have children plan community and school activities that really interest them, encourage families to focus more on physical activity, and encourage parents to exercise more.

A child with a learning disability (LD) have difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling :Three times as many boys than girls are classified with a learning disability :Approximately 80 percent of children with a LD have a reading problem

Dyslexia -- category of individuals who have a severe impairment in their ability to read and spell Dysgraphia - is a learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting Dyscalculia - is a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation

It is unlikely learning disabilities reside in a single, specific brain location More likely due to problems in integrating information from multiple brain regions or subtle difficulties in brain structures and functions

a disability showing these characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity They may get bored with a task after only a few minutes -- or even seconds They may be impulsive and have difficulty curbing their reactions They do not do a good job of thinking before they act

There is controversy about the increased diagnosis of ADHD Some experts attribute the increase to heightened awareness of the disorder Many children may be incorrectly diagnosed Definitive causes of ADHD have not been found

stimulant medication such as Ritalin or Adderall behavior management :Combination of both

Also called pervasive developmental disorders Characterized by problems in social interaction, problems in verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors Occur in 1 in 150 individuals

Severe developmental disorder that has its onset in the first three years of life Characterized by deficiencies in social relationships; abnormalities in communication; and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior

Mild autism spectrum disorder Child has relatively good verbal language, milder nonverbal language problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships

In 1990, public law 94-142 was recast as the individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA). IDEA was amended in 1997 and then reauthorized in 2004 and renamed the individuals with disabilities education improvement act. IDEA spells out broad mandates for services to children with disabilities of all kinds. These services include evaluation and eligibility determination, appropriate education and an individualized education plan (IEP), and education in the least restrictive environment.

Piaget proposed that the concrete operational stage lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age. In this stage, children can perform concrete operations, and they can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. Remember that operations are mental actions that are reversible, and concrete operations are operations that are applied to real, concrete objects. For example, recall that in one task involving conservation of matter, the child is presented with two identical balls of clay. The experimenter rolls one ball into a long, thin shape; the other remains in its original ball shape. The child is then asked if there is more clay in the ball or in the long, thin piece of clay. By the time children reach the age of 7 or 8, most answer that the amount of clay is the same. In the clay example, the preoperational child likely to focus on height or width. The concrete operational child coordinates information about both dimensions.

Strategies consist of deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information. They do not occur automatically but require effort and work. Following are some effective strategies for adults to use to help children improve their memory skills. Elaboration- involves more extensive processing of the information, such as thinking of examples or relating the information to one's own life. Elaboration makes the information more meaningful. Mental Imaginary- mental imagery can help even young school children to remember visuals. However, for remembering verbal information, mental imagery works better for older children than for younger children Motivate to understand rather than memorize- children will remember information better over the long term if they understand the information rather than just rehearse and memorize it. Repeat and vary instructional information, and link it to other information early and often- these recommendations improve children's consolidation and re consolidation of the information they are learning. Varying the themes of a lesson increases the number of associations in memory storage, and linking the information expands the network of associations in memory storage; both strategies expand the routes for retrieving information form storage in the brain Embed memory relevant language when instructing children- teachers who use mnemonic devices and metacognitive questions that encourage children to think about their thinking can improve student performance.

cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing. Many studies classifies as "metacognitive" have focused on metamemory, or knowlege about memory. This includes general knowledge about memory, such as knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests. It also encompasses knowledge about one's own memory such as a students ability to monitor whether she has studied enough for a test that is coming up next week.

Evaluation and eligibility determination Appropriate education Individualized education plan (IEP) Education in the least restrictive environment (LRE) :Inclusion describes educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom

Individualized education plan (IEP) --written statement that spells out a program that is specifically tailored for the student with a disability Least restrictive environment (LRE) -- a setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which children who do not have a disability are educated

problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to life's everyday experiences

tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias Two types have been devised :one includes items that are familiar to children from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds or items that at least are familiar to the children taking the test :second type of culture-fair test has no verbal questions

above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something :Tend to be more mature, have fewer emotional problems, and grow up in a positive family culture

Children gain new skills as they enter school that make it possible to learn to read and write: these include increased use of language to talk about things that are not physically present, learning what a word is, and learning how to recognize and talk about sounds. They also learn the alphabetic principle, that the letters of the alphabet represent sounds of the language. Childrens vocabulary increases from an average of about 14,000 words at age 6 to an average of about 40,000 words by age 11. Both the phonics and whole-language approach can benefit children, but experts increasingly view phonics instruction as critical in learning to read.

Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms

global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-image :reflects perceptions that do not always match reality

domain-specific evaluations of the self: Children self-evaluate in many domains of their lives-- academic, athletic, appearance

Identify the causes of low self-esteem Provide emotional support and social approval Help children achieve Help children cope

belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable influences a student's choice of activities :students with low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging :high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks

deliberate efforts to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brains prefrontal cortex

becoming interested in how things are made and how they work When children are encouraged in their efforts, their sense of industry increases Parents who see their children's efforts at making things as "mischief" or "making a mess" foster a sense of inferiority in their children

Heinz Dilemma A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

Kohlberg proposed stages of moraldevelopment which he believed were universal Preconventional reasoning -- children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code

the highest level in kholbergs theory of moral development. At this level, the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. social contract or utility and individual rights- the fifth kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. Aperson evaluates the validity of actual laws, and social systems can be examined in terms of the degree to wchich they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values. universal ethical principles- the sixth and highest stage in kholberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience should be followed, even though the decision might bring risk.

Having positive relationships with peers is especially important in middle and late childhood. Engaging in positive interactions with peers, resolving conflicts with peers in nonaggressive ways, and having quality friendships in middle and late childhood not only have positive outcomes at this time in children's lives, but are also linked to more positive relationship outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. For example, in one longitudinal study, being popular with peers and engaging in low levels of aggression at 8 years of age were related to higher levels of occupational status at 48 years of age. Another study found that peer competence in middle and late childhood was linked to having better relationships with coworkers in early adulthood.

Many inner-city schools are still segregated, grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate opportunities for children to learn effectively School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably -Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students: :Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students :Reduce bias :View the school and community as a team :Be a competent cultural mediator

Adolescence is a transitional period with continuity and discontinuity with childhood Not just a time of rebellion, crisis, pathology, and deviance :More accurately, it is of a time of evaluation, decision making, commitment, finding a place in the world Ethnic, cultural, gender, socioeconomic, age, and lifestyle differences influence the actual life trajectory of every adolescent Adolescents are exposed to complex options through the media They face the temptations of drug use and sexual activity Too many adolescents are not provided with adequate opportunities and support to become competent adults

Puberty is not the same as adolescence :most important marker of the beginning of adolescence :puberty ends long before adolescence does Puberty -- period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes Puberty is not a single, sudden event :the most noticeable changes are signs of sexual maturation and increases in height and weight

Adolescents' brains undergo significant structural changes corpus callosum -- thickens and this improves ability to process information prefrontal cortex doesn't finish maturing until 18 to 25 years of age or later amygdala -- the seat of emotions such as anger -- matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex

behind the first whisker in boys and the widening of hips in girls is a flood of hormones, powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream. The hypothalamus is a structure in the brain that monitors eating and sex. The pituitary gland is and important endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates other glands; among these, the gonads-the testes in males the ovaries in females- are particularly important in giving rise to pubertal changes in the body. testosterone is a hormone associated in boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height, and a change in voice. Estradiol is a type of estrogen; in girls it is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development.

the highest level of the frontal lobes involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control. However, the pre frontal cortex doesn't finish maturing until the emerging adult years, approximately 18 to 25 years of age, or later, whereas the amygdala- the seat of emotions such as anger- matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex.

A time of sexual curiosity, exploration and experimentation, of sexual fantasies and realities, of incorporating sexuality into one's identity Involves learning to manage sexual feelings (such as sexual arousal and attraction) and developing new forms of intimacy

currently, a major controversy in sex education is whether schools should have an abstinence-only program or a program that emphasizes contraceptive knowledge. Two research reviews found that abstinence only programs do not delay the initiation of sexual intercourse and do not reduce HIV risk behaviors. Further, another study revealed that adolescents who experienced comprehensive sex education were less likely to report adolescent pregnancies than those who were given abstinence-only sex education or no education. A number of leading experts on adolescent sexuality conclude that sex education programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge do not increase the incidence of sexual intercourse and are more likely to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections than abstinence only programs.

one study found that 80 percent of the male and 92 percent of the female adolescents in the 95th percentile and higher for body mass index became obese adults. A comparison of adolescents in 28 countries found that U.S. and British adolescents were more likely to eat fried food and less likely to eat fruits and vegetables than adolescents in most other countries that were studied.

The three leading causes of death in adolescence are accidents, homicide, and suicide More than half of deaths for ages 15 to 24 are due to unintentional injuries; three-fourths involve motor vehicles Homicide is the second-leading cause of death, especially among African-American males The adolescent suicide rate has tripled since the 1950s

The United States still has one of the highest rates of adolescent drug use of any industrialized nation Early onset of drinking linked to increased risk of heavy drinking in middle age Parents play a role in preventing drug abuse Peers also influence whether adolescents become substance abusers

eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness Three main characteristics of anorexia: weighing less than 85 percent of what is considered normal for a person's age and :having an intense fear of gaining weight :having a distorted image of one's body shape

eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern :Bulimics go on an eating binge and then purge by self-inducing vomiting or using laxatives Bulimics are preoccupied with food, have a strong fear of becoming overweight, and are depressed or anxious

is more abstract than concrete operational thought. Adolescents are no longer limited to actual, concrete experiences as anchors for thought. They can conjure up make-believe situations, abstract propositions, and events that are purely hypothetical, and can try to reason logically about them.

is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents David Elkind (1976) cited two key components: :imaginary audience :personal fable Adolescents also often show a sense ofinvincibility or invulnerability

involves adolescents belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are; attention getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "on stage".

the part of adolescent ego centrism that involves an adolescents sense of uniqueness and invincibility (or invulnerability). adolescents sense of personal uniqueness makes them feel that no one can understand how they really feel.

By adolescence, considerable variation in cognitive functioning is present across individuals. This variability supports the argument that adolescents are producers of their own development to a greater extent than are children. That is, adolescents are more likely than children to initiate changes in thinking rather than depend on others, such as parents and teachers, to direct their thinking. The most important cognitive change in adolescence is improvement in executive functioning, which involves higher-order cognitive activities such as reasoning, making decisions, monitoring thinking critically, and monitoring ones cognitive progress. improvements in executive functioning permit more effective learning and an improved ability to determine how attention will be allocated, to make decisions, and to engage in critical thinking.

a self-portrait composed of many pieces, including: vocational/career identity, political identity, religious identity, relationship identity, achievement; intellectual identity, sexual identity, cultural/ethnic identity, interests, personality, physical identity

Adolescent's push for autonomy and responsibility puzzles and angers many parents To be autonomic just means that you're self-fulfilling. It basically means you can take care of your body in the sense that you're eating, drinking, using the restroom, showering, grooming, etc. on your own without the help of someone else; basically just independence. Attachment on the other hand is a strong connection to another person. Both autonomy and attachment develop in adolescence as puberty begins to slow down and you become less and less dependent on the parent to fulfill your daily needs; and instead develop attachment emotionally to them. As the adolescent pushes for autonomy, the wise adult relinquishes control where the adolescent can make reasonable decisions, but continues to guide the adolescent

Much of the conflict involves the everyday events of family life (e.g., keeping a bedroom clean, dressing neatly, getting home by a certain time, use of the phone) The conflicts rarely involve major dilemmas such as drugs or delinquency Conflict with parents often escalates during early adolescence, remains somewhat stable during the high school years, and then lessens as adolescence ends

-Sullivan discussed the importance of adolescent friendships Friends are important in shaping the development of children and adolescents Everyone has basic social needs, friends help meet social needs Teenagers are motivated to seek out close friends Foreshadows the quality of romantic relationships in adulthood

Standards of peer groups and the influence of crowds and cliques become increasingly important during adolescence Peer pressure -- conformity to peer standards Cliques -- small groups ranging from 2 to about 12; members are usually same sex and about the same age; develop an in-group identity Crowds -- larger and less personal groups; membership based on reputation; and they may or may not spend much time together

Influence may be seen in differences in dating patterns among ethnic groups Values, religious beliefs, and traditions often dictate :the age at which dating begins :how much freedom in dating is allowed :whether dates must be chaperoned by adults or parents :the roles of males and females in dating

-Four problems that affect the most adolescents drug abuse:Px drugs in teens 1000 juvenile delinquency, sexual problems, school-related problems -Those who have more than one of these problems are more at risk

label applied to an adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal delinquency rates among minority groups and lower-socioeconomic-status youth are especially high These groups have less influence over the judicial decision-making process and may be judged more delinquent

Many causes have been proposed, including heredity, identity problems, community influences, and family experiences Adolescents with a negative identity may find support for their delinquent image among peers, reinforcing the negative identity :norms of many lower-SES peer groups and gangs are antisocial Parental monitoring is especially important in determining whether an adolescent becomes a delinquent Family discord and inconsistent and inappropriate discipline and sibling influences are also associated with delinquency Having delinquent peers greatly increases the risk of becoming delinquent