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spans the first two years of life. Piaget believed that infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment. They cannot yet carry out many activities inside their heads

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sensorimotor stage

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organized ways of making sense of experience

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schemes

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involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment

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adaptation

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during this, we use our current schemes to interpret the external world

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assimilation

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we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely

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accomodation

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when children are not changing much, and they assimilate more than they accomodate

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equilibrium

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during rapid cognitive change, children are in this stage. they realize that new information does not match their current schemes and they shift from assimilation toward accomodation

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disequilibrium

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a process that takes place internally, apart from direct contact with the environment. once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system

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organization

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provides a special means of adapting their first schemes. It involves stumbling onto a new experience cause by the baby's own motor activity

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circular reaction

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new born reflexes

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reflexive schemes

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simple motor habits centered around the infant's own body; limited anticipation of events

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primary circular reactions

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actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world; imitation of familiar behaviors

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secondary circular reactions

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intentional, or goal-directed, behavior; ability to find a hidden object in the first location in which it is hidden (object permanence); improved anticipation of events; imitation of behaviors slightly different from those the infant usually performs

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coordination of secondary circular reactions

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exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways; imitation of novel behaviors; ability to search in several locations for a hidden object (accurate A-B search)

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tertiary circular reactions

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internal depictions of objects and events, as indicated by sudden solutions to problems; ability to find an object that has been moved while out of sight (invisible displacement); deferred imitation; and make-believe play

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mental representation

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coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems

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intentional or goal-directed behavior

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the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight

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object permanence

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mental pictures of objects, people, and spaces

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images

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categories in which similar objects or events are grouped together

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concepts

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finding a toy moved while out of sight, such as into a small box while under a cover

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invisible displacement

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the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present

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deferred imitation

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children act out everyday and imaginary activities

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make-believe play

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researchers may habituate babies to a physical event to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested. Or they may simply show babies an expected events and an unexpected event. Heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world

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violation-of-expectation method

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apply a solution strategy from one problem to other relevant problems

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solve problems by analogy

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according to this, babies are born with a set of innate knowledge systems, or core domains of thought. Each of these prewired understandings permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore supports early, rapid development

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core knowledge perspectives

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includes object permanence, object solidity, and gravity

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physical knowledge

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that one object cannot move through another

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object solidity

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that an object will fall without support

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gravity

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enables swift language acquisition in early childhood

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linguistic knowledge

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understanding of mental states, such as intentions, emotions, desires, and beliefs

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psychological knowledge

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focus on many aspects of thinking from attention, memory, and categorization skills to complex problem solving

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information processing

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can use these to operate on and transform it, increasing the chances that we will retain information, use it efficiently, and think flexibly, adapting the information to changing circumstances

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mental strategies

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where sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly

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sensory register

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we actively apply mental strategies as we "work" on a limited amount of information

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working, or short-term memory

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directs the flow of information. It decides what to attend to, coordinates incoming information with information already in the system, and selects, applies, and monitors strategies

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central executive

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our permanent memory base

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long-term memory

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getting information back from the system

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retrieval

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the amount of information that can be retained and processed at once

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capacity

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noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced

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recognition

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is more challenging because it involves remembering something not present

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recall

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grouping similar objects and events into a single representation

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categorize

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based on similar overall appearance or prominent object parts: legs for animals, wheels for vehicles

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perceptual

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based on common functions or behaviors

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conceptual

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that most of us cannot retrieve events that happened to us before age 3

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infantile amnesia

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we can recall many personally meaningful one-time events from both the recent and the distant past: the day a sibling was born, a birthday party, or a move to a new house

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autobiographical memory

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one in which children remember deliberately

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explicit memory system

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remembering without conscious awareness

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implicitly

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refers to a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can do with the help of more skilled partners

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zone of proximal development

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promotes learning at all ages, when a child and adult work on something together

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scaffolding

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a commonly used test to test intelligence, is suitable for children between 1 month and 3 1/2 years

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Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development

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which indicates the extent to which the raw score (number of items passed) deviates from the typical performance of same-age individuals

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intelligence quotient

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giving the test to a large, representative sample and using the results as the standard for interpreting scores

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standardization

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where most scores cluster around the mean, or average, with progressively fewer falling toward the extremes. This bell-shaped distribution results whenever researchers measure individual differences in large samples

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normal distribution

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infant scores are called this because they do not tap the same dimensions of intelligence measured at older ages

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developmental quotients

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helping to identify for further observation and intervention babies who are likely to have developmental problems

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screening

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is a checklist for gathering information about the quality of children's home lives through observation and parental interview

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Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment

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these standards, devised by the U.S. National Association for the Education of Young Children, specify program characteristics that serve young children's developmental and individual needs, based on both current research and expert consensus

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developmentally appropriate practice

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regards language development as entirely due to environmental influences

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behaviorism

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assumes that children are "prewired" to master the intricate rules of their language

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nativism

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proposed that language, like any other behavior, is acquired through operant conditioning

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Skinner

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proposed a nativist theory that regards the young child's amazing language skills as etched into the structure of the human brain

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Chomsky

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an innate system that contains a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages. It enables children, no matter which language they hear, to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words

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language acquisition device

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vowel-like noises that have a pleasant oo quality

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cooing

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infants repeat consonant-vowel combinations in long strings, such as babababa or nananana

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babbling

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where the child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver

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joint attention

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games as in pat-a-cake or peekaboo

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give-and-take

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when toddlers first learn words, they often apply them too narrowly

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underextension

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applying a word to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate

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overextension

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the words children use

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production

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the words children understand

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comprehension

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a transition from a slower to a faster learning phase

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spurt in vocabulary

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two word utterances that focus on high-content words, omitting smaller, less important ones

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telegraphic speech

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their vocabularies consisted mainly of words that refer to objects

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referential style

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compared with referential children, they produce many more social formulas and pronouns

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expressive style

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a form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts

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child-directed speech

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