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Do frogs have a penis?

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In frogs, for instance, neither sex has a penis. Perhaps, then, the words male and female have no general meaning.

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Gametes

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This is that the sex cells or 'gametes' of males are much smaller and more numerous than the gametes of females. This is true whether we are dealing with animals or plants. One group of individuals has large sex cells, and it is convenient to use the word female for them. The other group, which it is convenient to call male, has small sex cells. The difference is especially pronounced in reptiles and in birds, where a single egg cell is big enough and nutritious enough to feed a developing baby for several weeks.

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X and Y sperm

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Half the sperms produced by a man are female-producing, or X-sperms, and half are male-producing, or Y-sperms.

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Body as a selfish machine

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As a convenient approximation, we can once again assume that each individual body is a selfish machine, trying to 146 Battle of the sexes do the best for all its genes. The best policy for such a selfish machine will often be one thing if it is male, and quite a different thing if it is female.

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Father will likely abandon

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So, in mammals for example, it is the female who incubates the foetus in her own body, the female who makes the milk to suckle it when it is born, the female who bears the brunt of the load of bringing it up and protecting it. The female sex is exploited, and the fundamental evolutionary basis for the exploitation is the fact that eggs are larger than sperms.

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question

Bruce effect

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male mice secrete a chemical which when smelt by a pregnant female can cause her to abort. She only aborts if the smell is different from that of her former mate. In this way a male mouse destroys his potential step-children, and renders his new wife receptive to his own sexual advances. Ardrey, incidentally, sees the Bruce effect as a population control mechanism! A similar example is that of male lions, who, when newly arrived in a pride, sometimes murder existing cubs, presumably because these are not their own children.

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question

Assuming then that a deserted female cannot fool a new male into adopting her child, what else can she do?

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If it is only just conceived, it is true that she has invested the whole of one egg in it and perhaps more, but it may still pay her to abort it and find a new mate as quickly as possible. In these circumstances it would be to the mutual advantage both of her and of the potential new husband that she should abort—since we are assuming she has no hope of fooling him into adopting the child. This could explain why the Bruce effect works from the female's point of view. Another option open to a deserted female is to stick it out, and try and rear the child on her own.

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question

Male promiscuity

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Since a female produces a limited number of eggs at a relatively slow rate, she has little to gain from having a large number of copulations with different males. A male on the other hand, who can produce millions of sperms every day, has everything to gain from as many promiscuous matings as he can snatch. Excess copulations may not actually cost a female much, other than a little lost time and energy, but they do not do her positive good. A male on the other hand can never get enough copulations with as many different

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Dawkins, The Selfish Gene Chapter 9 : Battle of the Sexes – Flashcards

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