Cyber Security and Victimization Essay Example

and productivity. ICT applications, in turn, may boost human and technical capacity and make essential services be more accessible. In this respect, cyber-attacks, including all forms of cybercrimes such as cyber-thefts, sabotage, etc. constitute the chief threat to the deployment of e-services and development of the society as a whole.

Cyber-crimes differ substantially from traditional crimes as they gain advantage from the timelessness, the possibility of obscurity, and the lack of limited space (Bohn, Coroama, Langheinrich, Mattern, & Rohs, 2004). This paper explores the reality of cybercrimes, both for the future and present. In recent times, cybercrimes have emerged as one of the greatest concerns of the 21st century. There has been a growing wariness and outright fear concerning the use of computer technology.

The potential danger is irrefutable and is likely to increase, which makes it all the more important to confront the issue of cybercrimes. Future criminals may have the power to effect more harm with a keyboard as opposed to a gun.

Background

Since the introduction of technology, the criminal exploitation of information technology together with the required legal responses are matters that have been discussed at great lengths. The launch of the transistor computers in the 1960s that were much cheaper and smaller than the vacuum tube machines brought about an increased use of computer technology. During this time, crimes mostly involved physical damage to the devices and the stored data (Westin, & Baker, 1972).

The 1970s saw changes from the regular property crimes on computer systems to new kinds of computer crimes, which involved tampering with electronic data and the unpermitted use of computer systems. As transactions shifted from being manual to computer-operated,

computer-related frauds began increasing. This new development posed a great challenge to law enforcement agencies due to their substantial numbers and millions of dollars were being stolen through this method. Personal computers became popular in the 1980s and with it came the emergence of software piracy and offenses connected with patents.

The introduction of the internet made remote access possible and greatly increased the potential number of cybercrimes that could be committed (Kabay, 2008). In the 1990s, the inception of the graphical interface (www) caused the number if internet users to grow rapidly and still new challenges emerged. It, in a sense, erased national borders for information in one locality was made available globally. Child pornography began getting distributed through internet services and websites. Computer crimes became transnational crimes and as a consequence, the international community confronted the problem more intensively (Hessick, 2014). Cybercrimes involve using computer network tools to commit offenses such as shutting down or harming critical infrastructure e.g.

institution’s operations, energy, etc. They are based on the fact that new loopholes form as essential infrastructure and people become more reliant on computer networks to carry out their activities. Principally, telecommunication systems are employed for criminal ends. Cybercrimes can comprise an assortment of antisocial activities through the use of computers, for example, sending malware and spam; and offenses directed towards specific targets, for instance, cyber bullying and cyber stalking (Gordon & Ford, 2006). Several manipulation strategies can be employed to accomplish cybercrimes, e.g. threats, bribes, etc.

Also noteworthy is that contact with strangers and sharing personal information also raises one’s risks of becoming a victim of cybercrime (Gordon & Ford, 2006). Cybercrimes are attractive alternatives to

modern criminals who esteem its obscurity, its capacity to inflict significant damages, its appeal to the media and psychological impact. The threat that cybercrimes pose has grabbed media attention, the IT industry and the security fraternity’s focus. The scenario in which seasoned cybercriminals electronically break into computers bearing critical information and wreak all manner of havoc has been highly popularized.

Hackers have proven that persons can gain access to the operation of crucial services and sensitive information. The increasing reliance on information technology has caused this new kind of vulnerability to emerge, giving criminals the opportunity to confront targets that in other respects would have been unassailable, e.g. systems that regulate the air traffic in airports. As people and institutions become more technologically advanced, the risk of cyber-attacks against their assets also increases (Gordon & Ford, 2006). Concerns about the risks cyber-attacks pose are thus well-founded.

Attacks on internet services and information infrastructure are being witnessed daily in hacking attacks and online frauds on a large scale. The financial implications are enormous. In one year alone, i.e. 2003, malicious software were responsible for damages amounting to $17 billion. The losses more than tripled in 2005 to $56.6 billion as a result of identity-related offenses. In 2007, proceeds from cybercrimes were estimated to have exceeded $100 billion.

Among the top frauds was auction scams and the estimated mean loss was more than $1000 per case (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2014). Within the underground economy services, bank account and credit card information are amongst the commonly advertised pieces of information. The information on one bank account is priced between $15 and $850, and the information on one credit card

is charged between $0.85 and $30 (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2014). Roughly 60% of all US businesses believe that cybercrimes are more damaging to them as compared to physical crimes (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2014).

These estimations demonstrate clearly the need to safeguard information infrastructure. Hacking, which refers to illegal entry into a computer system, is amongst the oldest of computer-related offenses. This crime has become a widespread occurrence following the development of the internet. The most common targets for hacking include the Pentagon, Google, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), eBay, and Yahoo. Some of the acts that constitute hacking crimes include the bypassing password protection in computer systems and the cracking the passwords of password-protected sites. Acts connected to hacking also include precursory activities e.g.

the use of faulty software or hardware implementation to gain a password to access a computer system illegally; creating “spoofing” websites to cause users to reveal their passwords and inserting software and hardware-based key-logging techniques, for instance, keyloggers, which record each keystroke and thus all passwords used on a device (Gordon & Ford, 2006). There are varied reasons offenders commit such acts. Some restrain themselves to just bypassing security protocols to prove their prowess. Others are politically motivated, and a recent example of such a case is the incident that involved the hacking of the primary United Nations website (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2014). In the majority of the cases, however, the offender’s motivation is not confined to illegal access to computer systems.

The access is used to commit additional crimes, for example, denial-of-service attacks (DoS), data manipulation and data espionage. In such cases, hacking is merely

the first critical step. The Center for Strategic International Studies (2014) further indicate that in the August 2007 alone, 250 million hacking attempts were recorded worldwide. The three principal factors that have given crucial support to the rising incidents of hacking include the increasing role of personal computers as the targets in hacking attacks, insufficient and incomplete safeguarding of computer systems, and the innovation of software applications that make the attacks more automated (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2014).

With regards to the insufficient and incomplete safeguarding of computer systems, millions of computers are linked up to the internet, and most of these have no adequate protection to prevent them from being accessed illegally. The University of Maryland did an assessment on the internet system and found that a computer system without any form of protection will likely experience an attack within one minute of internet access. Protective measures can reduce this risk though even well-protected systems can be hacked, which proves that the technical measures for protection will not entirely stop the attacks (Wang, & Huang, 2011). Pre-installed attacks and software can enable an offender to use one computer to attack thousands of systems in just one day. If the perpetrator gains access to more computers, for example, via a botnet, the scale of the attacks can be increased further.

Most software tools employ preset modes of attacks, thus, every attack may not prosper. The users who frequently keep updating their software applications and operating systems minimize their risks of becoming the victims of such broad-based attacks since the companies that develop the protection software assess the tools used in the attacks and make preparations for

the standardized hacking attacks (Wang, & Huang, 2011). In the recent past, offenders have been focusing more on PCs since many of such have inadequate protection. Additionally, PCs often have sensitive data, for example, bank account and credit card details. The increased targeting of PCs is because once successful; the offenders can add the computer to their botnet to employ it for further their criminal activities.

The provisions enacted to deal with access to information technology systems varies depending on the state. Some countries criminalize the first access while some limit the offense to instances in which the security measures that safeguard the system was breached or data was stolen, changed or damaged or the offender had malign intentions (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2014). Some of the issues that could arise as a result of cybercrimes include the illegal acquisition of sensitive information (data espionage). An example of such a case took place in the 1980s where German hackers broke into the US government computer systems and obtained secret information that they later sold to Russian agents (Penenberg, Barry, & Penenberg, 2001). The illegal interception of communication, e.g. emails, is another problem.

Also noteworthy is data interference, which tampers with the availability and integrity of the data. Offenders can delete, suppress or even change computer data. A typical example involved in data deletion is the computer virus. Virus attacks have increased substantially, and their payload has morphed significantly (Penenberg et al., 2001).

System interferences too can result in losses to the victims and more so businesses that run 24 hours a day. Offenses related to content have also become quite prevalent. Such crimes include child pornography, insults

connected to symbols of religion or xenophobic materials. The national approaches, which consider fundamental legal and cultural principles, have a greater influence on the development of legal instruments to handle this category. The spread of child pornography is particularly difficult to contain because of the increasing use of encryption methods and anonymous payments and virtual currencies, all of which prevent law enforcement agencies from tracking the offenders and the movement of cash (Hessick, 2014).

Online games and illegal gambling are also increasing rapidly, and such games have been employed to commit crimes such as the presentation and exchange of child pornography, libel, which involves leaving libelous or slanderous messages, and frauds (Hessick, 2014). Increased spreading of propaganda including racial hatred and hate speeches has been witnessed, and more than 6000 websites for such purposes were already in existence by 2006 (Wang, & Huang, 2011). Spams are also a common occurrence and various other kinds of illegal content such as enticements to commit crimes, guidelines for criminal acts, for example, how to construct explosives, and unlawful sale of products may also be done through the internet. Copyright crimes, computer-related forgeries, identity theft, cyberterrorism, cyberlaundering, and phishing amongst others are too in the list of offenses that constitute cybercrimes (Lynch, 2005). These crimes constitute some form of victimization and thus need to be checked.

Solution As previously mentioned, law-enforcement agencies face several challenges in the prosecution and investigation of cybercrimes. It is essential to educate the men and women involved in the war against cybercrimes as well as draft sufficient and effective laws. One way to deal with cybercrimes is through proper legislation, which is the basis for the

prosecution and investigation of cybercrimes. The law-makers must be up to par with the developments on the internet and assess the sufficiency of the existing provisions given the rapid advancements in network technology. It is a fact that a considerable amount of time is needed to update the national criminal law so as to indict new kinds of cybercrimes, but the absence of such laws makes it impossible to prosecute cyber-related crimes (Brenner, 2004).

The law enforcement agencies also require sufficient instruments to monitor potential acts of crime. The inauguration of such instruments is usually a bargain between tampering with the privacy rights of innocent users of the internet and the merits to law-enforcement agencies. An example is data retention, which could cause an intrusion into the personal affairs of innocent users of the web. However, such instruments can be employed where appropriate depending on the severity of the crime being investigated (Lynch, 2005). Procedures for developing digital evidence are also necessary.

Digital evidence is any data transmitted or stored with the use of computer technology and which backs the theory about the occurrence of a crime. Maintaining the integrity of digital evidence is amongst the toughest aspects in their handling for they are fragile and can be modified or deleted with ease. This fact is especially pertinent for the information that is stored in the memory of the system (RAM), which gets erased automatically when a computer is shut down. Such evidence needs special preservation techniques.

Based on the needs of the particular investigation, computer forensics can, for instance, include an analysis of the software and hardware a suspect used and the assisting investigators can concentrate on

pinpointing the evidence, recovering files that have been deleted, decrypting files, and identifying the users of the internet by scrutinizing traffic data (Lynch, 2005).

Conclusion

Cybersecurity and cybercrimes are barely separable. Currently, cybersecurity plays a significant role in the IT development as well as internet services. The safeguarding of essential information infrastructure and enhancement of cybersecurity should be fundamental to every nation’s economic well-being and security. Making the internet secure should be integral to the creation of novel services and government policing, and the deterrence of cybercrimes an essential part of critical information infrastructure and national cybersecurity protection strategies. This responsibility should be shared at the national level between the citizens, the private sector, and the government because the preparation, prevention, response, and possible recovery from such incidents require this cooperation.

Regionally and internationally, it entails the coordination and collaboration with the right partners. For this cause, the formulation of a strategy and national framework to deal with cybersecurity and its implementation should be approached comprehensively. The institutional, technical and legal challenges that the problem of cybersecurity poses are far-reaching and global and can only be confronted via a rational strategy that takes into account the existing initiatives and the functions of the diverse stakeholders, all within the chassis of international cooperation.

References

1. Bohn, J., Coroama, V., Langheinrich, M., Mattern, F., & Rohs, M. (2004). Living in a world of smart everyday objects – social, economic, and ethical implications. Journal of Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 10(5): 763-783.
2. Brenner, W. S.

   (2004). Cybercrime metrics: Old wine, new bottles? Virginia Journal of Law and Technology, 9(13): 1-53.

3. Center for Strategic International Studies, (2014, June). Net Losses: Estimating
   

the Global Cost of Crime. Retrieved from http://www.mcafee.com/us/resources/reports/rp-economic-impact-cybercrime2.pdf