Cognitive Final - Flashcards

Q: By providing feedback on learning, intelligent tutors _______.

Help students\' mastery of complex skills.

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As individuals become more proficient at a task, what occurs in the brain?

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They seem to use less of their brain to perform that task

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According to Hayes, no one reaches genius level without at leas how many years of practice?

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10

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What characterizes the cognitive stage of skill acquisition?

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Memorizing the task rules/steps in declarative memory

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According to the power-law of learning, what happens to the benefit of further practice?

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It slowly diminishes.

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During the associative stage of skill acquisition, the process of converting declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge is known as?

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Proceduralization

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As one becomes more skilled at a task, what happens to cortical activation?

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It decreases.

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According to Larkin(1981), physics novices tend to ____, while physics experts tend to ____.

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reason backward; reason forward

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When chess players are presented with random chessboard configurations, how is the performance of experts compared to that of novices?

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Experts remember the random configurations no better than novices do.

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According to the ____, studying esoteric subjects, such as Latin and geometry, served to discipline the mind.

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doctrine of formal discipline

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The theory of identical elements was ____ in its predictions.

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too narrow (people are better at transfer than the theory assumes)

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In rare cases, learning one skill makes a person worse at learning another skill. This is referred to as ____.

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Negative transfer

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By providing feedback on learning, intelligent tutors _______.

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Help students' mastery of complex skills.

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How did the subject S.F. learn to memorize long strings of digits (greater than 70 digits) rapidly?

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By associating the digits with info about running times already in long-term memory

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________ is concerned with conclusions that probabilistically follow from their premises.

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Inductive reasoning

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If you eat uncooked food, then you will become sick. The then part (you will become sick) is the what?

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Consequent

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If you eat uncooked food, then you will become sick. You didn't get sick. Therefore, you didn't eat uncooked food. What is this an example of?

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Modus tollens

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Based on what you know of the atmosphere hypothesis, and given the following premises, which conclusion should participants select? All mens are humans. All humans are women.

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All men are women.

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According to Johnson-Laird, individuals judge whether a conclusion is possible by creating a(n):

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mental model

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The ___________ demonstrates that people tend to fail to perform modus tollens when testing a logical assertion, such as a rule.

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Wason selection task

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Words such as "all" or "some" which are used to express a premise are called _________.

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Logical quantifiers

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Which sequence of 10 coin tosses is most likely? (H denotes Heads and T denotes Tails) 1.HTHTHTHTHT 2.HHTHTHTTTH 3.TTTTTTTTTT

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Each sequence is equally likely.

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Damage to this area of the brain led to personality changes in Phineas Gage.

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Prefrontal cortex

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Bayes's theorem is based on:

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probability

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A model that specifies the means by which people actually evaluate the probability of a hypotheses (i.e. what people actually do) is known as a(n)

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descriptive model

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Bayes's theorem specifies how to:

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combine the prior probability with the conditional probabilities to determine the posterior probability

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Base-rate neglect decreases if events are stated in terms of

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frequencies instead of probabilities

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The difference between $15 and $10 seems greater than the difference between $125 and $120. What is this an example of?

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Subjective utility

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You are the major of a city. The person who built the shelter tells you that it can't accommodate 600 of the towns 800 citizens. 600 people will die if you only allow 200 to enter. If you allow all citizens to enter, there's 1/4 probability that no one will die but 3/4 that everyone will die. What does a vote lead to with knowledge of the framing effect?

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They will vote to shelter all 800 citizens

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The probability of a reward is represented in the activity of the what.

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ventromedial prefronal cortext

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IN the Iowa gambling task, participants with ventromedial damage did what?

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continued to select from the high-paying decks (in the text, decks A and B)

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Participants appear to be most accurate at estimating probabilities when

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they have previous experience with the situation

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When comparing subjective probability to objective probability

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people tend to overestimate the probability of low-probability events

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For most individuals, language is lateralized in the

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left hemisphere

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Often, patients with Broca's aphasia

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can comprehend but not generate grammatical speech

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Often, patients with Wernicke's aphasia

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generate grammatical but meaningless speech

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________ refers to the fact that an infinite number of utterances are possible in any language

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productivity

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_____ concerns the meaning of words and sentences

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Semantics

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_____ arise when a word has two or more distinct meanings

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Lexical ambiguities

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The sentence "They are stewing meats." is an example of what kind of ambiguity

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Structural ambiguity

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According to Chomsky, the psychologist's task is to develop a theory of:

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linguistic performance

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Which sentence below is most likely to be produced? a. I speak [pause] tonight for the dignity [pause] of man and the destiny of democracy. b. I speak tonight [pause] for the dignity of man [pause] and the destiny of democracy c. I speak tonight for [pause] the dignity of man and the [pause] destiny of democracy. d. I speak tonight for the [pause] dignity of man and the destiny of [pause] democracy

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b. I speak tonight [pause] for the dignity of man [pause] and the destiny of democracy

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Which is NOT a feature of human language? a. Semanticity and arbitrariness of units b. displacement in time and space c. discreteness and productivity d. These are all features of human language

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d. these are all features of human language

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Rosch (1973) compared Dani and English speakers' ability to learn nonsense names for colors. What did she find?

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Both Dani speakers and English speakers find it easier to learn nonsense names for focal colors than for nonfocal colors.

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How do young children inflect sing to indicate the past tense.

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Young children use sang then singed then sang.

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The ___ stage of language comprehension refers to transforming the linguistic input into a mental representation.

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Parsing

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While reading, readers fixate on:

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almost every word

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The dominant syntactic cue in english is:

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word order

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The _____ is an indicant of difficulty in syntactic processing.

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P600

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A partipant reads the semantically violating sentence, "Lena clapped the kitten to Vick." The research should expect to see:

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an N400

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When an ambiguous word is presented, readers select a meaning within:

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700 msec.

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Unambiguous sentences result in ____ Broca's area (compared to ambiguous sentences).

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less activation of

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_____ is one in which a listener connects a current utterance to preceding utterances.

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A bridging inference

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Given "The splinter was removed quickly. Shelly liked the new tweezers," What is this an example of?

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Elaborative inference

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Given "Gina is looking at the bus schedule. She needed to go to the mall to buy a dress to wear to prom." The sentence "Gina is going to take the bus to the mall." corresponds to Kintsch's

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situation model level

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Garden path sentences such as "the horse raced past the barn fell" causes parsing difficulty due to the reader's tendency called:

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immediacy of interpretation

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The fact that a native Japanese speaker wouldn't hear the difference between the words "look" and "rook" is due to:

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categorical perception

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When parsing a sentence, evidence shows that people tend to pause longest at phrase boundaries, indicating that;

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People tend to process sentence meaning one phrase at a time.

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The communication that bees use to indicate where food sources are does not qualify as a language because it does no exhibit ____.

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dynamic and generative properties

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Words appear to be learned and stored along with words of similar meaning. Data that demonstrates this idea comes from.

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Lexical decision tasks

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Developments in which of the following did NOT influence the emergence of cognitive psychology? artificial intelligence, cognitive science, information theory, linguistics

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cognitive science

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Neurons communicate by releasing chemicals called:

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neurotransmitters

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A synapse is

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the point at which an axon from one neuron passes communication to the dendrite of another.

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A bulge in the cortex is called a

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gyrus

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Which of these lobes in NOT a cortical lobe?

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anterial

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The ____ portion of the brain is disproportionately larger in primates than in most mammals

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front

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By comaping reaction times across different tasks Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to

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make a decision about the stimulus

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Billy and Mac were in a car accident. Billy suffered damage to Broca's area, while Mac suffered damage to Wernicke's area. As a result:

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both suffered from language deficits

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The left hemisphere is associated with what?

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analytic and perceptual processing

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According to ____, psychologists should NOT try to analyze the working of the mind.

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behaviorism

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Which neuroimaging technique relies exclusively on detecting differences in blood oxygenation levels in different regions of the brain?

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fMRI

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Which neuroimaging technique relies on detecting voltage changes on the scalp associated with neural firing?

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EEG

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Visual images are projected onto the light-sensitive layer of the eye called the:

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retina

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Hubel and Wiesel discovered cells in the cat's visual cortex that respond positively to light on one side of a line and negatively to light on the other side. These cells are called:

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edge detectors

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To convert a 2-D retinal image to a 3-D neural representation, the visual system uses cues such as:

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stereopsis, texture gradient, and motion parallax

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The fact that each eye receives slightly different views of the world is referred to as ____, a process that aids in ______

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stereopsis, depth perception

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How do template-matching models compare to human pattern recognition?

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Template-matching models are more rigid than human pattern recognition

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Object recognition is similar to feature analysis in that

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objects can be viewed as configuration of simpler elements

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Biederman suggested that there are 36 sub-objects that combine to create every 3-d object in our environment. He referred to these as

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geons

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When we listen to a foreign language, the flow of speech sounds like a continuous stream. THis illustrates:

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the absence of clear boundaries or markers for words

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The basic perceived units of speech are called

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phoneme

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Subjects are most likely to confuse consonants that vary in only one feature. This evidence supports the idea that

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phonemes are recognized by their features

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Subjects can better discriminate between two letters when the letters are embedded in words than when the letters stand alone. This effect is called the

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word superiority effect

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Which of the following is NOT a theory of object perception? Template matching Feature selection and memorization Feature integration Recognition by components

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Feature selection and memorization

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How is the Interactive Activation Model different from other feature-based theories of object recognition (e.g. Triesman's feature-integration theory)?

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it includes a top-down processing componenet

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Later inhibition facilitates which of the following in visual processing

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Edge detections

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The fact that you can read images of words with pieces blocked out shows what

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That top-down processing is important for perception

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You are at a museum. Which of the following is an example of something likely to lead to an exogenous attention shift?

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A brightly-colored painting against a white wall

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IN studies of dichotic listening, psychologists have found that the subjects:

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could identify only the physical characteristics of the message (speech v. noise) heard in the non-attended ear

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Imagine that you are at a party with many conversations going on around you. Your attention is "grabbed" by a conversation that includes your name. This event suggests what?

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The meaning of a message is sometimes more important than the physical characteristics of the message for attention

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Triesman and Geffen compared the attenuation theory with the late-selection theory. THey asked subjects to indicate when they heard a target word, but the word could occur either in the shadowed or unattended ear. their results suggest what?

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The attenuation theory is supported since most subjects detected the shadows, but not the unattended, target words

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In a visual array, subjects must identify the location of the target letter O. This should be easiest when the distracters are

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Is and Xs

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The term that cognitive psychologist studying perception use to describe the difficulty in explaining the fact that individuals are able to remember the prober combination of features of stimuli (e.g., a red A vs. a blue A) that they have seen previously is called:

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the binding problem

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Patients with right parietal lobe injury generally have difficulty doing what?

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disengaging attention from visual info present to the ipsilateral(same;right) side of the visual field

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If we have looked at a particular region of space, we find it harder to return our attention to that region of space. The phenomenon is called what?

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inhibition of return

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In the study of attention, automaticity refers to

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Performance of a skill that has been practiced repeatedly with little or no direct attention

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The strong tendency for the reading of words to be faster than the naming of colors is seen in the

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stroop effect

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Suppose you are in kitchen writing a grocery list, while your roommate is watching TV in the next room. A commercial for spaghetti sauce comes on TV. Although you are paying attention to the TV, arnd you are not aware of what's on, you "suddenly" remember that you need to picky up spaghetti sauce and you add it to the list. Your behavior is best predicted by which of the following models of attention?

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Deutsch & Deutch's late selection

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The phenomenon of illusory conjunction refers to

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the tendency to report combinations of features that had not appeared together in the original display

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Experiments demonstrating the inhibition of return phenomenon in attention suggest that attention is

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the tendency to report combinations of features that had not appeared together in the original display

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Experiments demonstrating the inhibition of return phenomenon in attention suggest that attention is:

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space-based and object-based

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What pattern of performance might be expected when observing someone who is multi-tasking?

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performance will always be hindered when multi-tasking compared to single-tasking, but much less if the two tasks do not share a cognitive module

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In a spatial cueing task, subjects:

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respond fastest to valid cues

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Which of the following is the best description of the attentional blink effect

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there is an attention bottleneck which makes it difficult to detect a second target just after a prior target

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A mental experience that does not have any functional role in information processing is referred to as a(n)

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epiphenomenon

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It is clear from Roland and Friberg's study examining brain activity during mental walks or jingles that

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verbal information is processed in a brain region that is distinct from the region where visual information is processed

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Santa presented an array of three words arranged in a spatial configuration and then tested subjects with either a spatial configuration or a linear arrangement of the words. The results showed what?

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subjects were faster when the arrangement of words was linear.

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What evidence supports the notion that in mental rotation tasks, subjects rotate one object until it is congruent with other?

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Judgement time is a linear function of the number of degrees of rotation required to complete the rotation

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Brooks asked subjects to point, tap, or verbalize responses to diagram or sentences. What statement best explains the outcome?

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Subjects took longest to classify diagrams in the pointing condition than in the verbal condition

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The combined results of Brook's study on verbal vs. visual/spatial tasks and Baddely's study on verbal vs. spatial vs. visual tasks suggest that the interference that occurs when scanning an image while also processing spatial information is:

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a spatial conflict not visual

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Research on mental rotation and scanning seems to suggest that:

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the mental processes people go through in such tasks seem to be analogous to the physical process of rotating or scanning

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Which of the following would subjects take the shortest time to answer

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Which is larger, a fly or a cow?

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Subjects asked to look at reversible figures, such as the ambiguous duck-rabbit, and form an interpretation were,

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unable to find a second interpretation for the mental image of the figure, but were able to form a different interpretation when drawing the figure

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A map that acts like a spatial image of the environment is referred to as a

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survey map

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With regard to navigation, cognitive psychologist differentiate between representing space as we see it (________ representation) and representing space free of any particular viewpoint (_________ representation).

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egocentric; alocentric

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Which of the following brain structures has been strongly implicated in the ability to navigate through the environment using a cognitive map?

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hippocampus

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Reaction time date from mental rotation experiments have demonstrated that

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the time required to performance a rotation increases at a constant rate relative to the distance of the rotation

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Results from Gunzelman and Anderson's (2002) study with maps led to the theory that the processes used in navigational tasks are similar to those involved in mental imagery by showing that

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participants were faster to find an object when their starting orientation matched the map's orientation

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Which of the following is NOT a mnemonic technique talked about in class? a) method of loci b)imaginal method c)interactive imagery d)pegword

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Pegword

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Research indicates that eidetic or photographic memory

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is more common in children than adults

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Which of the following best represents the similarity between visual perception and imagery

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They share many common processes and brain regions but not all

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Which prefrontal region is involved in processing visual info (as opposed to verbal info)

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right

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Wanner warned some subjects, but not others, that they would have to recall a set of instructions. The results of the study showed that

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memory is better for changes in wording that affect meaning than for changes that affect style

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Suppose you went to a university workshop on how to apply for financial aid and were given a short set of explicit instructions at the end. 30 minutes after handing out aid forms, the instructor then asked you to report how much of the verbatim instruction you recall. Which statement indicates what you probably would recall from the information?

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I would probably recall the gist of the instructions.

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In comparing memory for pictures to memory for sentences, we can say that subject remember what?

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They remember the gist, but not the minute details for both pictures and sentences

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Mandler and Ritchey used pictures of classroom scenes to study memory for pictures. ______ distracters differed from the original picture in unimportant details (i.e. pattern in clothes) and ______ distracters differed from the original in important details (i.e. picture on the wall).

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Token; type

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In their studies of memory for pictures, Mandler and Ritchey found that subjects rejected changes in

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type distracters more often than token distracters, demonstrating that meaning was more important than detail

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Which of the following is NOT evidence for proposition representations? The meaning of a picture is remembered better than its details Pictures are remembered better than words The meaning of a sentence is remembered better than its wording In the Branford and Franks experiment, people cannot remember exactly which sentences they studies, but remember the meaning.

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Pictures are remembered better than words

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What emphasizes the contribution of motor action and how it connects us to the environment

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Embodied cognition

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Pulvermiller (2004) recorded brain activation related to verbs (kick, push) that involved body-part actions in order to find evidence for

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embodied cognition

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Mirror neurons, in monkeys, become active when?

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when the monkey performs an action or sees another perform an action

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In the Brewer and Treyens' office study examining schemas, most subjects

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recalled seeing books that were not present in the office

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Scripts are schemas that encode

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our knowledge or stereotypical sequences of actions

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Which theory states that we store a number of different instances of a category and judge new instances by degree of similarity to those stored instances

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Instance/exemplar theory

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A web browser such as Google is analogous to how the mind searches for information in that

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it finds information based on content (content addressable memory)

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When thinking about the concept of a triangle, ______ would presume that you are imagining a triangle based off of previously observed instances of triangles.

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exemplar theory

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In semantic networks the two items with the shortest distance are the _______ to verify

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fastest

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Sperling's partial report experiment showed that:

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sensory memory can contain a large amount of informaiton

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Memory loss (forgetting) is negative/positively accelerated/decelerated?

answer

negatively accelerated

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Long-term potentiation mirrors which power law?

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the power law of learning

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You have memorized the following four statements. Thinking about the fan effect, which sentence would you be fastest at recognizing (i.e. the least amount of time to recognize)? The fish ate an orange The mouse ate the orange The cat ate the apple The cat ate the cherries

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The mouse at the orange

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What effect odes redundancy have on interferences

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Redundancy decreases the likelihood of interference.

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Some adults who remember instances of sexual abuse from their childhood may be mistaken about the accuracy of their memory. This is known as

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false-memory syndrome

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Godden and Baddeley examined memory for words studied/recalled in two environments (shore/under water), and they found that

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participants recalled more words if tested in the same environment in which the words were learned

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It is easier to remember happy memories when _____ and sad memories when ____>

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happy; sad

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An inability to learn new things is called what?

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anterograde amnesia

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It is thought that the _____ is particularly important in creating new memories

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hippocampus

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It is thought that old memories are maintained in the _____.

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cerebral cortex

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Patients with damage to the hippocampus often suffer from

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both anterograde and retrograde amnesia

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Knowledge that we can not consciously recall is referred to as

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implicit memory

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Playing a piano is an example of what kind of knowledge?

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procedural knowledge

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What are the two types of declarative/explicit memory?

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episodic memory and semantic memory

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Remembering where you parked is an example of what kind of memory?

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episodic

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In memory, decay refers to the idea that ______, whereas interference refers to the idea that _______.

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information not used frequently enough fades away; new information replaces old information in memory

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The controversy between decay and interference accounts of forgetting have led many to conclude that

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decay and interference are both mechanisms of forgetting because it is hard to completely rule out decay

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A patient who is incapable of forming new explicit memories is trained to perform a simple recognition task, showing improvement over time despite being unable to recall having done the task before. Studies have shown, however , that the patient's recognition will likely fail when

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the objects are not presented in the manner in which they were "learned"

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In Atkinson and Schiffrin's traditional, but "outdated", model of memory that we covered in class how does memory work?

answer

Short-term memory serves as an intermediate store between sensory memory and long-term memory

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Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model

answer

neural array activator

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If you were asked to recall a 5-item list of 2-syllable words and then a 5-item list of 5-syllable words, what would be the liklely outcome

answer

You would recall fewer longer words

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One brain region in monkeys that has been implicated in working memory is the

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frontal cortex

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Participants in the Meyer and Schvaneveldt lexical decision study were faster at making judgments about

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positive word pairs like bread and butter

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Recent experimental evidence has demonstrated a lateralization of memory functions. It appears that ____ is carried out by the left prefrontal cortex, while _____ is carried out by the right prefrontal cortex.

answer

memory for words; memory for pictures

question

Imagine meeting someone at a party who you really want to see again. You get his phone number, but with no paper and pencil to write it down, you convert it to HOT STUF. The strength of memory traces will be much stronger because you have used:

answer

elaborative processing

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The activation strength of a memory determines the speed and probability of accessing a memory. What determines the activation strength for a particular memory?

answer

base-level activation and activation received from associated input conecpts

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The meaningfulness that determines how much info is in a chunk in working memory

answer

knowledge in long-term memory (LTM)

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Which of the following is NOT a factor that may lead to inaccurate memories

answer

priming of memories

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Problem solving is described in terms of searching a ____.

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problem space

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When Gick and Holyoak (1980) read participants the story about a general storming a fortress, and then gave them Dunker's (1945) radiation (aka, ray) problem, what did they find?

answer

Paricipants had to be explicitly told to use the first story as as an analogy for the second

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What are the steps to using an analogy to solve problems

answer

Retrieve the analogy from the source problem, map correspondence, then apply mapping to get solutions

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________ involves the creation of new goal to enable an operant to apply

answer

Means-end analysis

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Which of the following is not a heuristic that humans use to guid their selection of operators? -backup avoidance -difference reduction -means-ends analysis -search

answer

Search

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The Tower of Hanoi problem can be solved through sub-goaling by adopting what kind of strategy

answer

Means-end strategy

question

The ___ plays a critical role in maintaining goal structures.

answer

prefrontal cortex

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We can become biases by our experiences to prefer certain operators when solving a problem. This is referred to as a(n):

answer

set effect

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Metcalfe and Wiebe found that 15 seconds before solving an insight problem

answer

participants had little idea that they were close to a solution

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The mutilated checkerboard experiment, performed by Kaplan and Simon, showed that participants had trouble solving the problem unless told to consider how pieces could cover alternating black and white squares. The improvement observed following this hint suggests the importance of _______ during problem solving.

answer

problem representations

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Failure to conceive of pliers as a pendulum or a tack box as a platform are both classic examples of what?

answer

functional fixedness

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One of the major advances of means-ends analysis over difference reduction/hill climbing is that

answer

it will NOT abandon operators that cannot be applied immediately

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IN a problem such as the Tower of Hanoi, resistance to solution paths that would return a disc to a previous peg would be an example of what?

answer

backup avoidance

question

IN the nine dot problem, the primary source of difficulty is what

answer

the problem space that is given prevents individuals from going outside of the dots

question

The nine dot problem is an insight problem because?

answer

The problem representation has to be changed resulting in an 'Aha' experience.

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