Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood – Flashcards
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What stage of Piaget's theory occurs during middle childhood?
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Concrete operational stage.
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What conservation tasks are mastered in this stage?
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1) Decentration 2) Reversibility In addition to these conservation tasks, kids can also use classification at this stage.
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What seriation task is mastered at this stage?
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Transitive inference: the ability to seriate mentally.
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What spatial reasoning task is mastered at this stage?
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Cognitive maps: mental representations of spaces.
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What are some limits of concrete operational thinking?
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1) Children's mental operations are: a) most effective when dealing with concrete information. b) work poorly with abstract ideas. 2) Continuum of acquisition: a) Children master concrete operational tasks step by step, not all at once. b) Gradual mastery of logical concepts indicates limitations of concrete operational thinking.
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Impact of culture and schooling
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1) Experience of attending school promotes mastery of Piagetian tasks. 2) Certain informal, non-school experiences can also foster operational thought.
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Neo-Piagetian theories
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1) Operational thinking represents expansion of information-processing capacity. 2) Central conceptual structures enable children to think effectively in wide range of situations. 3) Neo-Piagetian approaches account for unevenness in cognitive development.
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Information-Processing Perspective: executive function
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Executive function: 1) improves, supporting gains in planning, strategic thinking, and self-monitoring. 2) is influenced by combination of heredity and environmental factors.
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Information-Processing Perspective: working-memory capacity
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Working-memory capacity: 1) benefits from increased efficiency of thinking. 2) is often deficient in children with persistent learning difficulties in reading and math. 3) can be increased through direct training.
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Attention in middle childhood
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Attention becomes more: 1) selective (increased ability to attend only to relevant aspects of a task). 2) flexible (ability to flexibly adapt attention to situational requirements). 3) planful (increased ability to evaluate a sequence of steps in advance).
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Memory strategies
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Memory strategies improve: 1) Rehearsal: repeating items to oneself 2) Organization: grouping related items together 3) Elaboration: creating relationship between pieces of information from different categories 4) Combining several strategies is most effective approach. 5) Organization and elaboration combine items into meaningful chunks, further expanding working memory.
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Symptoms, origins, and treatment of ADHD
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1) Symptoms: a) Unable to stay focused on task requiring mental effort for more than a few minutes b) Often ignore social rules and lash out when frustrated 2) Origins: a) Highly heritable, but also related to environmental factors b) Associated with a stressful home life 3) Treatment: a) Stimulant medication reduces symptoms in 70% of children, but drugs have risks. b) Best approach is medication combined with interventions that model and reinforce appropriate behavior.
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Theory of the mind in middle childhood
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1) School-age children view the mind as an active, constructive agent that selects and transforms information. 2) Children understand more about sources of knowledge, including mental inferences and second-order beliefs. 3) Children appreciate second-order false belief—incorrect beliefs about other people's beliefs—which requires recursive thought. 4) ERP and fMRI evidence reveals increasing selectivity in brain regions recruited when thinking about another's mental states. 5) Schooling contributes to more reflective, process-oriented view of the mind. 6) Children develop greater consciousness of how and why mental strategies work.
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Cognitive Self-Regulation
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Process of cognitive self-regulation involves: 1) continuously monitoring progress toward a goal. 2) checking outcomes. 3) redirecting unsuccessful efforts. Parents and teachers can foster self-regulation by: 1) pointing out important features of a task. 2) suggesting strategies and explaining their effectiveness. 3) Acquiring effective self-regulatory skills promotes a sense of academic self-efficacy.
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Whole language and phonics
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1) Whole language: a) Children are exposed to text in complete form from the beginning. b) Promotes appreciation of communicative function of written language. 2) Phonics: a) Children are first coached on phonics—rules for translating written symbols into sounds. b) Complex reading material is introduced only after mastering these skills. c) Children learn best with a mixture of whole-language and phonics approaches.
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Sequence of reading development
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Ages 2-5: "Pretends" to read and write. Prints own name and other words. Ages 5-6: Recognizes familiar written words. Decodes simple, one-syllable words. Retells story main events in sequence. Ages 6-7: Decodes regularly spelled one-syllable words. Recognizes some irregularly spelled words. Ages 7-8: Reads grade-level stories more fluently, while also comprehending. Decodes multi-syllable words and more irregularly spelled words. Ages 9-15: Reads to acquire new knowledge. Understands different types of texts: biographies, fiction, poetry. Ages 15-18: Reads more widely, exploring diverse viewpoints.
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Applying Information Processing to Academic Learning: Mathematics
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1) Math teaching in elementary school builds on informal knowledge of number concepts and counting. 2) Mix of drill in computing and "number sense" is most effective approach. 3) Understanding effective strategies is essential for solid mastery of basic mathematics.
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Defining and measuring intelligence
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1) Around age 6, IQ becomes more stable and predicts: a) school performance. b) educational attainment. 2) Current IQ tests: a) provide an overall score representing general intelligence and separate scores measuring specific mental abilities. b) do not measure all aspects of intelligence.
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Factor analysis
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Factor analysis is used to identify abilities measured by intelligence tests.
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Group-administered IQ tests
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1) allow testing of large groups. 2) require little training to administer. 3) are useful for instructional planning. 4) identify students who need further evaluation.
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Individually-administered IQ tests
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1) demand considerable training and experience to give well. 2) provide insight into whether test score accurately reflects child's abilities. 3) are often used to identify highly intelligent children and those with learning problems.
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Types of tests
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1) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition a) Age 2 to adulthood b) Measures five intellectual factors: general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, basic information processing. 2) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV a) Ages 6 to 16 b) Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (for younger children) c) Measures four broad intellectual factors: verbal reasoning, perceptual (or visual-spatial) reasoning, working memory, processing speed.
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Componential analyses
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Look for relationships between aspects of information processing and test scores.
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Processing speed
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Is moderately correlated with IQ. Other equally important factors are: 1) flexible attention. 2) memory. 3) reasoning strategies.
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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence
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Successful intelligence includes creative intelligence, practical intelligence, and analytical intelligence.
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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
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Howard Gardner proposed eight independent intelligences: 1) linguistic 2) logico-mathematical 3) musical 4) spatial 5) bodily-kinesthetic 6) naturalist 7) interpersonal 8) intrapersonal
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Explaining Group and Individual Differences in IQ
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1) Heredity: a) Heredity accounts for about half of individual differences in IQ. b) It does not explain the complex processes through which genes and experience influence intelligence. 2) Environment: a) Adoption research confirms that heredity and environment jointly contribute to IQ. b) Evidence suggests that poverty severely depresses intelligence of ethnic minority children.
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Flynn effect
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Generational gains in IQ (Flynn effect) challenge assumption that ethnic group variations are genetic.
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Cultural Influences on IQ
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1) Language and communication styles: a) use of African-American dialect b) collaborative vs. hierarchical style of communication between many ethnic minority parents and children 2) Knowledge: a) specific information acquired through majority-culture upbringing b) effects of knowledge on reasoning ability c) amount of time spent in school 3) Stereotypes: a) effect of stereotype threat—fear of being judged on basis of negative stereotype
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Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing
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1) "Static" assessments underestimate how well children can do after adult assistance. 2) Dynamic assessment: a) is a form of testing in which adult introduces purposeful teaching into testing situation. b) is consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. c) reveals what a child can attain with social support.
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Language development in middle childhood
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1) Metalinguistic awareness develops. 2) Vocabulary increases fourfold: a) Reading contributes enormously to vocabulary growth. b) Children grasp double meanings, appreciate riddles and puns. 3) Mastery of grammar increases: a) Children use passive voice more frequently. b) Understanding of infinitive phrases advances. 4) Dramatic gains occur in pragmatics: a) Children can adapt to needs of listeners in challenging communicative situations. b) Ability to evaluate clarity of others' messages improves. c) Narratives advance in organization, detail, and expressiveness.
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Learning 2 languages
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1) Children can become bilingual by: a) learning two languages at once. b) learning a first language, then a second. 2) Bilingual children (like adults) engage in code switching—producing an utterance in one language containing "guest" words from the other. 3) A sensitive period for second-language development exists. 4) Children who become fluent in two languages develop more efficient executive-function skills. 5) Advantages of bilingualism provide strong justification for bilingual education. 6) In the United States, bilingual education is controversial.
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Academic Achievement and Class Size
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1) Small class size from kindergarten through third grade: a) predicts greater likelihood of graduating from high school. b) is associated with better academic progress. 2) Teachers in small classes: a) spend less time disciplining. b) spend more time teaching and giving individual attention. 3) Children who learn in smaller groups show: a) better concentration. b) higher-quality class participation. c) more favorable attitudes toward school.
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Educational philosophies
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Traditional vs. constructivist classrooms 1) Social-constructivist classrooms: a) reciprocal teaching b) communities of learners 2) Teacher-student interaction: a) strong impact on academic self-esteem, achievement, and social behavior of at-risk children b) educational self-fulfilling prophecies 3) Grouping practices: a) homogeneous vs. heterogeneous learning contexts b) cooperative learning
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Magnet schools
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1) Racial divide in U.S. schools has improved only modestly since 2000. 2) Inner-city schools are vastly disadvantaged in funding and educational opportunities. 3) Magnet schools offer usual curriculum plus specific area of interest, such as performing arts. 4) Research suggests higher achievement in reading and math achievement for low-SES, ethnic minority students attending magnet schools.
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Educational media
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1) Computers and Internet access are integrated into schools in industrialized nations. 2) Computer use is associated with academic progress: word processing, problem solving, metacognition. 3) Nonviolent video game play has cognitive benefits: a) gains in eye-and-hand coordination, visual processing speed, attention, strategic thinking, spatial reasoning. 4) Digital divide: a) Low-SES homes are less likely to have computers/Internet, especially tablets and educational apps. b) Boys spend more time with screen media than girls. c) Girls and low-SES students need opportunities to benefit from positive aspects of screen-media technology.
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Teaching children with special needs
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1) Inclusive classrooms: a) Children with learning difficulties learn alongside typical students for part or all of school day. b) Students with mild intellectual disability may be included. c) Some students experience full inclusion. d) If steps are taken to promote positive peer relationships, inclusion can foster prosocial behavior. 2) Students with learning disabilities: a) These students have great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading. b) Some benefit academically from inclusion, but many do not. c) Achievement gains depend on severity of disability and support services available.
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Giftedness
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1) Exceptional intellectual strength 2) Usually measured by high IQ 3) Creativity
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How is creativity measured?
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Creativity: measured by divergent thinking.
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Talent
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1) Outstanding performance in a specific field 2) Must be nurtured
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How well educated are US children?
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1) Factors that affect educational quality: a) societal values b) school resources c) quality of teaching d) parental support 2) Performance of U.S. students in international comparisons: a) typically at or below international averages b) less challenging, more fact-focused instruction; less opportunity for high-level reasoning, critical thinking. c) large socioeconomic inequalities associated with lower achievement 3) U.S. families, schools, society must work together to upgrade education.
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Strategies for Improving U.S. Education
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1) Support parents in: a) attaining economic security. b) creating stimulating home learning environments. c) monitoring children's academic progress. d) communicating often with teachers. 2) Invest in high-quality preschool education. 3) Strengthen teacher education. 4) Provide intellectually challenging, relevant instruction with real-world applications. 5) Vigorously pursue school improvements that reduce large inequities in quality between SES and ethnic groups.
