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spontaneous process

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process that takes place naturally with no apparent stimulus

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Exorgonic process

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Process that gives up energy as it takes place

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Enderogonic process

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Process that gains or accepts energy as it takes place

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exothermic or endothermic

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If the energy changes in chemical processes involve heat they are referred to ___________ and ____________

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Entropy

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Measurement or indication of disorder in the system. The more disorderly a system, the higher its entropy

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Stable substance

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Substance that does not undergo spontaneous changes under the surrounding conditions

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Reaction rate

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Speed of a reaction. In experiments, you determine the change in concentration of a reactant or product and divide it by the time it takes for this change to occur

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Reaction mechanism

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Detailed explanation of how a reaction actually takes place

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Internal energy

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Energy associated with vibrations within molecules. (Heat causes molecules to vibrate more vigorously)

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Activation energy

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Energy needed to start some spontaneous processes. Once started, the processes continue without further stimulus or energy from an outside source.

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Energy Diagrams

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graphing of energy and reaction times

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Factors that Influence Reaction Rates

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Nature of the reactants
Concentration of the reactants
Temperature of the reactants
Presence of catalysts

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Effective collision

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Collision that causes a reaction to occur between the colliding molecules

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Catalyst

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Substance that changes reaction rates without being used up in the reaction

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Inhibitor

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Substance that decreases reaction rates

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Homogenous catalyst

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Catalytic substance that is distributed uniformly throughout the reaction mixture

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Hetergeneous or surface catalyst:

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Catalytic substance normally used in the form of a solid with a large surface area on which reactions take place

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State of equilibrium

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Condition in a reaction system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.

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Equilibrium concentrations

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Unchanging concentrations of reactants and products in a reaction system that is in a state of equilibrium.

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Position of Equilibrium

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An indication of the relative amounts of reactants and products present at equilibrium

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Le Chatelier’s principle.

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Position of an equilibrium shifts in response to changes made in factors of equilibrium

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Arrhenius Acids

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Any substance that provides H+ ions when dissolved in water.

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Arrhenius Base

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Any substance that provides OH- (hydroxide) ions when dissolved in water

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BrOnsted Acid

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Any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (H+) to another substance

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BrOnsted Base

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Any substance capable of accepting a proton from another substance

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Conjugate Base

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Species (atoms, molecules, ions) remaining when a BrOnsted acid donates a proton

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Conjugate acid-base pair

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A BrOnsted acid and its conjugate base

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Neutral

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Term used to describe any water solution in which the concentrations of H3O+ (hydronium ion) and OH- (hydroxide ion) are equal. Also, a water solution with a pH=7.

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Ion product of water

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Equilibrium constant for the dissociation of pure water into H3O+ and OH-.

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Acidic solution

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A solution in which the concentrations of H3O+ is greater than the concentration of OH-. Also, a solution in which pH is less than 7.

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Basic or alkaline solution

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A solution in which the concentrations of OH- is greater than the concentration of H3O+. Also, a solution in which pH is greater than 7.

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pH

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Negative logarithm of the molar concentration H+ (H3O+), or hydronium ion, in a solution

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All acids have the following properties in common:

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1.They taste sour
2.Produce H3O+ ions when dissolved in water
3.Undergo double-replacement reactions with solid oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates
4.React with (and dissolve) certain metals to yield hydrogen gas

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Activity series

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Tabular representation of the tendencies of metals to react with H+

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Neutralization reaction:

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Reaction in which an acid and base react completely, leaving a solution that contains only a salt and water.

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Salt:

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Solid crystalline ionic compound at room temperature that contains the cation of a base and anion of an acid

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Cation:

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Positively charged ion.

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Anion

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Negatively charged ion.

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Hydrate:

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Salt that contains specific numbers of water molecules as part of the solid crystalline structure

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Water of hydration:

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Water retained as part of the solid crystalline structure of some salts.

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Strong acids and strong bases:

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Acids and bases that dissociate (ionize) essentially completely when dissolved to form a solution.

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Weak (or moderately weak) acids and bases

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Acids and bases that dissociate (ionize) less than completely when dissolved to form a solution.

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Acid dissociation constant

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Equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid

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Monoprotic acid

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Acid that gives up only one proton (H+) per molecule when dissolved.

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Diprotic acid

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Acid that gives up two protons (H+) per molecule when dissolved.

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Triprotic acid

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Acid that gives up three protons (H+) per molecule when dissolved.

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Titration:

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Analytical procedure in which one solution (often a base) of known concentration is slowly added to a measured volume of an undknown solution (often an acid). The volume of the added solution is measured with a buret.

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Equivalence point of a titration

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Point at which the unknown solution has exactly reacted with the known solution. Neither is in excess.

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Endpoint of a titration

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Point at which the titration is stopped on the basis of an indicator color change or pH meter reading.

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Hydrolysis reaction

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Any reaction with water. For salts it is a reaction of the acidic cation and/or basic anion of the salt with water.

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Buffer

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Solution with ability to resist changing pH when acids or bases are added.

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