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Skeletal Growth

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Between ages 2 and 6, approximately 45 new epiphyses, or growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge in various parts of the skeleton. pg.167

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Skeletal Age

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X-rays of these growth centers enable doctors to estimate children's skeletal age or progress toward physical maturity. pg.167

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Baby Teeth

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By the end of preschool years, children start to lose there primary, or baby teeth.Girls tend to loose teeth quicker. pg.167

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Tooth Decay

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Diseased baby teeth can affect the health of permanent teeth, so preventing decay in primary teeth is essential. Brushing consistently, avoiding sugary foods, drinking fluoride water, and getting topical fluoride treatments and sealants. Exposure to tobacco smoke suppresses the children's immune system, including the ability to fight bacteria responsible for tooth decay. pg. 167

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Brain Development

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Between ages 2 and 6 the brain increases from 70 percent of its adult weight to 90 percent. By age 4, many parts of the cerebral cortex have overproduced synapses. pg. 167

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Synaptic Pruning

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By age 8 to 10, energy consumption of most cortical regions diminishes to news-adult levels, and cognitive capacities increasingly localize in distinct neural systems, yielding a more fine-tunes, efficient neural organization. pg. 167

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EEG, NIRS, and fMRI

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Measures of neural activity indicate especially rapid growth from early to middle childhood in areas of the prefrontal cortex devoted to executive function. pg. 168

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Left Cerebral Hemisphere

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Active between 3 and 6 years and then levels off. Language skills increase at an astonishing pace.pg. 168

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Right Cerebral Hemisphere

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Activity increases steadily throughout early and middle childhood. Spatial develop gradually over childhood and adolescence. pg. 168

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Lateralize

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Differences in the development of the two hemispheres suggest that they are continuing to lateralize. (specialize in cognitive functions). pg. 168

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Handedness

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Supports the join contribution of nature and nurture to brain lateralization. pg.168

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Dominant Cerebral Hemisphere

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Handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain- carry out skilled motor actions. pg.169

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Left Handed People

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Slightly advantaged in speed and flexibility of thinking and are more likely than their right handed age mates to develop outstanding verbal and mathematical talents. pg.169

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Cerebellum

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Located at the rear and base of the brain. A structure that aids in balance and control of body movements. pg. 169

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Connection between Cerebellum & Cerebral Cortex

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Children with damage to the cerebellum usually display both motor and cognitive deficits. pg. 169

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Reticular Formation

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A structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness, generates synapses and myelinates throughout childhood into adolescence. The neurons located here send out fibers to the prefrontal cortex, contributing to improvements in sustained, controlled attention. pg.169

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Hippocampus

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An inner brain structure which plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help us find our way. Recalls memory and independent movement emerges. pg. 169

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Corpus Callosum

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A large bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres. Supports smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the body and integration of many aspects of thinking.pg. 170

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Genes

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influence growth by controlling the body's production of hormones. pg. 170

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Pituitary Gland

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Located at the base of the brain, plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that induce growth. pg.170

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Growth Hormone (GH)

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Necessary for development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals. Children who lack GH reach an average mature height of 4 to 4 1/2 feet. pg. 170

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Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

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Second pituitary hormone, promotes the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size. pg.170

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Deficiency of Thyroxine

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If an infant is born with no thyroxine then they must receive it at once. If they do not, then they can be mentally retarded. pg. 170

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Nutrition

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Preschoolers eat less, but require the same high-quality diet that adults do. Children who are not pressured to eat certain foods will increase their acceptance when they are exposed to new foods. Offering bribes causes the children to like the healthy food less and the treat more. pg. 170 & 171

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Nutritionally Deficient Diet

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Is associated with shorter stature, attention and memory difficulties, lower intelligence and achievement test scores, and hyperactivity and aggression. pg. 171

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Infectious Disease & Malnutrition

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Poor diet depresses the body's immune system making children far more susceptible for disease. Disease reduces appetite and limits the body's ability to absorb foods. In developing countries, diarrhea caused by unsafe water and contaminated foods has caused 1 million child deaths. pg.171

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Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) & Zinc

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Impairments and death due to diarrhea can be prevented by ORT. Sick children are given glucose, salt, and water to quickly replace fluids in the body. Supplements of zinc can also reduce diarrhea. pg.171

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Immunizations

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Diseases in industrialized nations has declined because immunizations. 30% of preschoolers lack immunizations and 32% for poverty stricken children. pg.171

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U.S Lags Behind in Immunization

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U.S children do not have access to the health care they need. Parents often fail to schedule the vaccination appointment. Some parents have been influenced by media reports suggesting a link between a mercury-based-preservative used for decades in vaccines and a rise in the number of children diagnosed with autism. Studies show no association. pg. 171

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Unintentional Injuries

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Are the leading cause of childhood mortality in industrialized nations. Children who survive from an injury can suffer pain, brain damage, and permanent physical disabilities. pg. 172

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Most Common Injuries

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Motor vehicle collisions are ranked as the leading cause of death among children over 1. Auto and traffic accidents,burns and drowning are the most common injuries during early and middle childhood. pg. 172

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"Accidental" & "Ecological System"

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Accidental suggests they are due to chance and cannot be prevented. But, they occur within a complex ecological system of individual, family, community, and societal influences- and we can do something about them. pg. 172

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Higher Risk of Injury

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Boys are 1.5 times more likely to be injured than girls. Children with certain temperamental and personality characteristics-inattentiveness, overactivity, irritability, defiance, and aggression. Poverty, single parenthood, and low parental education. Parents experiencing many daily stresses often have little energy to monitor the safety of their children. pg. 172

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Childhood Injury Rates High in U.S

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Extensive poverty, shortages of high-quality child care and a high rate of births to teenagers. pg. 172

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Preventing Childhood Injuries

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Laws prevent many injuries. Ex. wearing a seatbelt and child-resistant caps on medicine bottles. Parent interventions that highlight risk factors and that model and reinforce safety practices are effective in reducing childhood injuries. pg. 172 & 173

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Gross- Motor Development

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Balance improves greatly, paving the way for new gross-motor skills. Age 2, preschoolers secure enough that soon they leave the ground, at first by running and later by jumping, hopping, galloping, and skipping. Age 5-6, steer and pedal a tricycle. By the end of preschool years, all skills are preformed with greater speed and endurance. pg. 173

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Fine-Motor Development

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Control of the hands and fingers improve. Children can put puzzles together, build with small blocks, cut and paste, and improve in self-help skills. Also apparent in drawings and first efforts to write. pg. 173 &174

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Drawing Step 1: Scribbles

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At first, children's gestures rather than the resulting scribbles contain the intended representation. pg. 174

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Drawing Step 2: First Representational Forms

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Around age 3, children's scribbles start to become pictures. Few 3 year-olds spontaneously draw so others can tell what their picture represents.Fine motor and cognitive limitations lead the preschooler to reduce the figure to the simplest form that still looks human: the universal tadpole image, a circular shape with lines attached. pg. 174

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Drawing Step 3: More Realistic Drawings

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5-6 year olds create more complex drawings, containing more conventional human and animal figures, with the head and body differentiated. pg. 174

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Early Printing

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Between ages 4 and 6, as children learn to name alphabet letters and link them with language sounds, do children realize that writing stands for language. Preschoolers first attempt to print often involve their name, generally using a single letter. pg. 174

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Differences in Motor Skills: Boys Excel

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Boys are ahead of girls in skills that emphasize force and power. By age 5, they can broad-jumo father, run faster, and throw a ball 5 feet farther. Greater muscle mass. pg. 174 & 175

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Differences in Motor Skills: Girls Excel

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Fine motor skills and gross-motos skills that depend on balance and agility. Overall physical maturity may be partly responsible for their better balance and precision of movement. pg. 175

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Difference in Motor Skills

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From an early age, boys and girls are usually encouraged into different physical activities. Greater social pressure for boys to be active and physically skilled exaggerate small, genetically based sex differences. Adult involvement in young children's motor activities should focus on fun rather than on winning or perfecting the "correct" technique. pg. 175

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Piaget's Theory: The Preoperational Stage

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Spans the years 2-7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity. pg. 175

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Mental Representation: Piaget's Theory

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Piaget acknowledged tat language is our most flexible means of mental representation. Piaget believed that sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children then label with words. pg.175

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Make-Believe Play

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Example of the development of representation in early childhood. Piaget believed that through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes. pg.175

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Play Detaches from the Real-Life Conditions Associated with it

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In early pretending, toddlers use only realistic objects. Children younger than age 2, will pretend to drink from a cup but refuse to pretend the cup is a hat. After age 2, children pretend with less realistic toys. They imagine objects and events without any support from the real world. pg. 176

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Play Becomes Less Self-Centered

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At first, make believe us directed toward self. Children direct pretend actions toward other objects, as when a child feeds a doll. pg. 176

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Play Includes More Complex Combinations of Schemes

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Children combine schemes with those of peers in sociodramatic play, the make believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood. pg. 176

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Sociodramatic Play

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The make believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity using early childhood. Children display awareness that make-believe is a representational activity- an understanding that strengthens over early childhood. pg. 176

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Make Believe: Benefits

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Make-believe play not only reflects but also contributes to children's cognitive and social skills. Preschoolers who spend more time at sociodramatic play are seen as more socially competent by their teachers. pg. 176

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Symbol-Real World Relations

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In this experiment, the 2 1/2 yea olds did not realize that the model could be both a toy room and a symbol of another room. This is called dual representation. pg. 176 & 177

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Dual Representation

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Viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol. 2 years olds do not yet grasp that a line drawing-an object in its own right-also represents real-world objects. pg. 177

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How do Children Grasp the Dual Representation of Symbolic Objects

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When adults point out similarities between models and real-world spaces. Insight into one type of symbol-real-world relation helps preschoolers master others. 3 year olds who can use a model of a room to locate Big Snoopy readily transfer their understanding to a simple map. Experiences with diverse symbols- photos, picture book, make-believe, and maps- help preschoolers appreciate that one object can stand for another. pg.177

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Limitations of Preoperational Thought: Piaget's Theory

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Piaget described preschoolers in terms of what they cannot understand. He compared them to older, more competent school-age children. Piaget believed that young children are not capable of operations- mental actions that obey logical rules. Their thinking is rigid, limited to one aspect of a situation at a time and strongly influence by the way things appear at the moment. pg. 177

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Egocentrism

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Piaget's most fundamental deficiency of preoperational. Failure to distinguish other's symbolic viewpoints from one's own. When children first mentally represent the world, they tend to focus on their own viewpoint and simply assume that others perceive, think, and feel the same way they do. pg. 177

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Egocentrism: 3 Mountains Problem

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Each mountain is distinguished by its color and by its summit. Children at the preoperational stage respond egocentrically. They simply choose the photo that reflects their own vantage point. pg.177

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Egocentrism: Animistic Thinking

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The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions. pg.177

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Egocentrism: Accommodating

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Piagets argued that preschoolers egocentric bias prevents them from accommodating, or reflecting on and revising their faulty reasoning in response to their physical and social worlds. pg. 177

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Conservation

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Refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes. Ex. a boy and a girls each has a box of raisins. The boy keeps his raisins in the box and the girl spreads her raisins out on the table. The boy in convinced that the girl had more. But in reality, they had the same amount. pg. 178

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Centration

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They focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features. The child CENTERS on the fact that the raisins are spread out on the table. He failed to realize that they looked the same when they were both in the box. Child can be easily distracted by PERCEPTUAL APPEARANCE of objects. Child can also ignore the DYNAMIC TRANSFORMATION (pouring the raisins ont he table) between them. 1. Centers 2. Perceptual appearance 3. Dynamic Transformation pg. 178

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Irreversibility

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The most important illogical feature of preoperational thought. An inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point. Reversibility is part of every logical operation. pg. 178

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Hierarchical Classification & Inclusion Problem

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The organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences. Piaget's famous class inclusion problem, demonstrates this limitation. 12 red flowers and 4 blue flowers, a child is asked is there more red flowers or flowers? The child responds with red flowers. They failed to realize that there are 16 flowers total. pg. 178

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Problems with Piaget's Peroperational Though

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Researchers have challenged Piaget's view of preschoolers as cognitively deficient. Many of the problems contain unfamiliar elements or too many pieces of information for young children to handle at once. Also missed many naturally occurring instances of effective reasoning by preschoolers. pg. 179

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Egocentric: Piaget 1

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When asked to help an adult looking for a lost object, 24 month olds-but not 18 month olds- handed her a toy resting behind a bucket that was within the child's line of sight but not the adults'. Nonegocentric responses also appear in children's everyday interactions. pg. 179

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Egocentric: Piaget 2

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Piaget described preschoolers' egocentrism as a tendency rather than an inability. Perspective talking, will see that it develops generally throughout childhood and adolescence. pg. 179

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Animistic: Piaget

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Piaget overestimated preschoolers' animistic beliefs. By age 2 1/2 children give psychological explanations for people and occasionally for animals, but rarely for objects. Preschoolers' rarely attribute biological properties to robots, indicating that they are well aware that even a self-moving robot with lifelike features is not alive. pg.178

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Magical Thinking: Piaget

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Preschoolers' think that magic accounts for events they otherwise cannot explain- fairies, goblins, ghosts. These responses indicate that preschoolers' notions of magic are flexible and appropriate. Between ages 4 and 8 their magical beliefs decline. Children entertain the possibility that something imaginary might materialize, they may react with anxiety to scary stories, TV shows, and nightmares. pg. 179

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Logical Thought

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When preschoolers' are given tasks that are simplified and relevant to their everyday lives, they do not display the illogical characteristics that Piaget saw in the preoperational stage. They can engage in impressive reasoning by analogy about physical changes.Preschoolers understand that the insides of animals are responsible for certain cause-effect sequences that are impossible for nonliving things. Seem to use illogical reasoning only when grappling with unfamiliar topics, too much information, or contradictory facts they cannot reconcile. pg. 179

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Categorization

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By the beginning of early childhood, children's categories include objects that go together because of their common function, behavior, or natural kind, despite varying widely in perceptual features. 2 to 5 year olds draw appropriate inferences about nonobservable characteristics shared by category members. pg. 179

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Categorization

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During the 2nd and 3rd years children's categories differentiate. They form basic level categories- chairs, tables, and beds. By the 3rd year children move back and forth between basic level categories and general categories- such as furniture. The basic level categories are broken down into subcategories, such as rocking chairs and desk chairs.pg. 179

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Categorization

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Preschoolers expanding vocabulary and general knowledge supports their impressive skill at categorizing. Adults label and explain categories to children, especially during picture book reading. Preschoolers category systems are less complex than those of older children and adults, they already have the capacity to classify hierarchically and on the basis of nonobvious properties. Logical, casual resigning is used to identify the interrelated features that form the basis of a category to classify new members. pg. 180

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Preoperational Stage: Piaget Theory Wrong

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Another challenge to Piaget's concept of abrupt change toward logical reasoning around age 6 or 7. Some people do not believe that pre operational stage exists. pg. 180

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Preoperational Stage: Piaget Theory Valid

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Neo-Piagetian theorists combine Piagets approach with the information-processing emphasis on task-specific change. Believe that Piaget's strict stage definition must be transformed into a less tightly knit concept, one in which a related set of competencies develops over an extended period, depending on brain development and specific experiences. pg. 180 & 181

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Children's Questions

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When young children converse with adults, they ask, on average, more than one question per minute. Every age between 1 and 5 years, 70-90 percent of children's questions were information-seeking as opposed to non information-seeking. Preschoolers ask questions purposefully to obtain clarifying information about things that puzzle them. pg. 181

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Children's Questions: Cognitive Development

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The content of children's questions is related to cognitive development. With age, children will ask about the function, activity, and theory of mind. Preschoolers are amazingly persistent: they ask again until they get the information they want. Asking questions is a major means through which children strive to attain adult-like understandings. pg. 181

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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

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Children start to communicate with themselves in much the same way they converse with others. This greatly enhances their thinking and ability to control their own behavior. pg. 182

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Egocentric Speech: Piaget

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Belief that young children have difficulty taking the perspectives of others. "Talk for self" in which they express thoughts in whatever form they happen to occur, regardless of whether a listener can understand. Believed that cognitive development in certain social experiences eventually an end to egocentric speech. pg. 182

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Inner Speech: Vygotsky

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Disagreed with Piagets conclusions. Believed that children talking to themselves is the foundation for all higher cognitive processes. Children speak to themselves for self-guidance. Inner Speech- The internal verbal dislodges we carry on while thinking and acting in everyday situations. All studies have supported Vygotsky's perspective.

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Private Speech

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Children's self-directed speech is now called private speech. Research shows that children use more of it when tasks are appropriately challenging, after they make errors, or when they are confused about how to proceed. With age, private speech goes underground, changing into whispers and silent lip movements. pg. 182

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Zone of Proximal Development: Vygotsky

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A range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers.

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Scaffolding

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Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance. The child has little notion of how to proceed, the adult uses direct instruction, breaking the task into manageable units and suggesting strategies. Children whose parents were effective scaffolders used more private speech, were more successful when attempting difficult tasks on their own, and were advanced in overall cognitive developmet. Effective scaffolding varies among cultures. pg. 182 & 183

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Make Believe Play: Vygotsky

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The ideal social context for fostering cognitive development in early childhood. As children create imaginary situations, they learn to follow internal ideas and social rules rather than their immediate impulses. A unique, broadly influential zone of proximal development in which children try out a wide variety of challenging activities and acquire many new competencies. Make believe in preschoolers increase self-control. pg. 183

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Pretending

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Rich in private speech- a finding that supports its role in helping children bring action under the conrol of thought. pg. 183

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Evaluation: Vygotsky's Theory

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Underscores the vital impact of teaching and the wide cultural variation in children's cognitive skills. Verbal communication may not be the only means through which children's thinking develops. In cultures that place less emphasis on schooling and literacy, parents often expect children to acquire new skills though keen observation and participation in community activities. pg. 183

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Guided Preparation

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A broader concept than scaffolding. It refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication. The term suggests the account for children's diverse ways of learning through involvement with others. Allows for variations across situations and cultures. pg. 183

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Vygotsky's Theory: Cognitive Development

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Says little about how basic motor, perceptual, attention, memory, and problem solving skills contribute to a socially transmitted higher cognitive processes. Piaget paid far more attention than Vygotsky to the development of basic cognitive processes. pg. 183

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Children in Village & Tribal Cultures

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Children receive little to no schooling, spend their days in contact with adult work, and assume mature responsibilities in early childhood.

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Mayan Preschoolers & Adults

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Men tend cornfields, aided by sons age 8 and older. Women prepare meals, wash clothes, and care for livestock and garden, assisted by daughters and by sons too young to work in the fields. Start these activities at age 2. Yucatec Mayan preschoolers are highly competent at self-care. But, their make believe is limited. Parents rarely converse or play with preschoolers or scaffold their learning. When children imitate adult tasks, parents conclude that they are ready for more responsibility. By age 5, children spontaneously take responsibility for tasks beyond those assigned. pg. 184

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Information Processing

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Focuses on cognitive operations and mental strategies that children use to transform stimuli flowing into their mental systems. pg. 184

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Executive Function

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Various componenets of executive function enables children to succeed in cognitively challenging situations- including attention, impulse control, coordinating information in working memory, and planning-show impressive gains. pg. 184

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Attention

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Sustained attention improves in early childhood. A major reason is a steady gain in children's ability to inhibit impulses and keep their mind on a competing goal. 4 year olds make many errors, but by age 6 to 7 some tasks are easy. They can resist the pull of their attention toward a dominant stimulus- a skill that predicts social maturity and reading and mach achievement from kindergarten through high school. pg. 185

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Planning

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Early childhood children become better at planning. Planning is thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal. As long as it is not to complex, 5 year olds can generate and follow a plan. Children learn much from cultural tools that support planning- directions for playing games, patterns for construction, recipes for cooking- especially when they collaborate with more expert planners. When parents encourage planning in everyday activities, they help children plan more effectively. pg. 185

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Memory: Recognition and Recall

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Recognition Memory- the ability to tell whether a stimulus-us is the same as or similar to one they have seen before- is remarkably good. Recall- The child generates a mental image of absent stimulus. Young children's recall is much poorer than their recognition. Improvements in recall are associated with language development. pg. 185

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Memory: Memory Strategies

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Memory Strategies- deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering. Preschoolers with good learning skills recall poorly because they are not skilled at using memory strategies. Preschoolers do not rehearse or repeat items over and over to remember. They do not organize, grouping together items that are alike. pg. 185

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Memory: Episodic Memory

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Episodic Memory: Memory for everyday experiences. In remembering lists, you recall isolated bits, producing them exactly as you originally learned them. In remembering everyday experiences, you recall complex, meaningful information. The capacity to bind together stimuli supports an increasingly rich episodic memory in early childhood. pg. 185

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Memory: Scripts

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Scripts are general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation. Scripts help children organize and interpret everyday experiences. Support children's earliest efforts at planning as they represent sequences of actions that lead to desired goals. pg.185

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Memory: Autobiographical Memory

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A second type of episodic memory. Used to describe one time events. pg.186

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Autobiographical Memory: Elaborative Style

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They follow the child's lead, ask varied questions, add information to the child's statements, and volunteer their own recollections and evaluations of events. Recall more information about past events and produce more organized and detailed personal stories. pg. 186

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Autobiographical Memory: Repetitive Style

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Provide little information and keep repeating the same questions regardless of the child's interests. pg.186

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Theory of Mind: Metacognition

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Thinking about thought (the prefix meta means beyond or higher). pg. 186

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Awareness of Mental Life

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2 to 3 year old verbal responses indicate that they think people always behave in ways consistent with their desires; they do not understand that less obvious, more interpretive mental states, such as beliefs, also affect behavior. From age 4 and on they say that both beliefs and desires determine behaviors. False Beliefs- ones that do not represent reality accurately- can guide people's actions. Toddlers may have an implicit grasp of false belief. Explicit understanding is evident in older preschoolers' verbal explanations. pg. 186

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Preschoolers' Theory of Mind: Factors

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Factors include language, executive function, make-believe play, and social experiences. pg. 187

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Theory of Mind: Language

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Children who spontaneously use, or who are trained to use, mental-state words in conversation are especially likely to pass false-belief tasks. Chinese languages have verb markers that can label the word believe as decidedly false. pg. 187

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Theory of Mind: Executive Function

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The ability to inhibit inappropriate responses, think flexibility, and plan-predict mastery of false belief. Children must suppress an irrelevant response- the tendency to assume that others share their own knowledge and beliefs. pg. 187

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Theory of Mind: Social Experiences

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Mothers of securely attached babies were more likely to comment appropriately on their infants' mental states. "Mind-mindedness" was positively associated with later performance on false-belief and other theory of mind tasks. pg. 187

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Theory of Mind: Other Factors

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The preschoolers have older siblings who are children then they tend to be more aware of false belief. The style of adult-child interaction contributes. Core knowledge theorists believe that to profit from the social experiences children must be biologically prepared to develop a theory of mind. For children with autism, false belief is greatly delayed or absent, are deficient in the brain mechanisms enabling humans to detect mental states. pg. 187

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Mental Life: Limitations

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At age 5, children pay little attention to the process of thinking. They believe that all events must be directly observed to be known. They do not understand mental inferences can be a source of knowledge. Finding suggests that preschoolers view the mind as a passive container of information. pg. 187

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Emergent Literacy

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The active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences. pg. 187

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Early Childhood Literacy

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Children figure out that letters are part of words and are linked to sounds in systematic ways. First children rely on sounds in the names of letters and then they grasp sound-letter correspondences. pg. 188

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Prolonged Awareness

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The ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language. When combined with sound-letter knowledge it enables children to isolate speech segments and link them with their written symbols. pg. 188 & 189

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Interactive Reading

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Adults discuss storybook content with preschoolers, promotes many aspects of language and literacy development. pg. 189

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Literacy: Low-Income Families

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Have fewer home and preschool language opportunities- a gap that translates into large differences i skills vital for reading readiness at kindergarten entry. pg. 189

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"Mindblindness" & Autism

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Autism is the most severe behavior disorder of childhood. Limited ability to engage in normal behaviors required for successful social interaction. Language is delayed and stereotyped. Engage in much less make-beleiev plat than other children. Interests are narrow and over intense. Autism is due to the genetic or prenatal environmental causes. fMRI evidence indicates weaker connections between the amygdala and areas of the cerebral cortex involved in processing emotional information. Autism has a deficit theory of mind. At age 4, children have a difficulty with false-belief. Perhaps several biologically based deficits underlie the tragic social isolation. pg. 188

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Mathematical Reasoning: Ordinality

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Order relationships between quantities. 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 year olds understand that when a number label changes the number of items should also change. pg. 189

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Mathematical Reasoning: Cardinality

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That the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in a set. Mastery of cardinality increases the efficiency of children's counting. pg. 189

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Mathematical Reasoning: Counting

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Children use counting to solve arithmetic problems. Grasping the basic arithmetic rules facilitates rapid computation, and with enough practice, children recall answers automatically. When adults provide many occasions for counting, children acquire these understandings sooner. pg. 189

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Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)

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Assess aspects of 3 to 6 year olds' home lives that support mental development. Preschoolers who develop well intellectually have homes rich in educational toys and books. These parents resolve conflicts with reason instead of physical force and punishment. When low SES families parents manage despite low education and income, to obtain a high HOME scores, their preschoolers do better on tests of intelligence and measures of language and emergent literacy skills. pg. 190

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Preschool, Kindergarten, and Child Care

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Young children enrolled in preschool or child care has steadily increased to more than 60% in the United States. Good child care should provide the same high-quality educational experiences that an effective preschool does. pg.190

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Preschool & Kindergarten: Child-Centered Programs

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Teachers provide a variety of activities from which children select, and much learning takes place through play.

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Preschool & Kindergarten: Academic Programs

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Teachers structure children's learning teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill. Despite evidence that formal academic training in early childhood undermines motivation and emotional well-being preschool and kindergarten teachers have felt increased pressure to take this approach. pg.190

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Preschool & Kindergarten: Montessori Education

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A special type of child-centered approach. Montessori was originally applied her method to poverty-stricken children. Schooling includes material specially designed to promote exploration and discovery, child-chosen activities, and equal emphasis on academic and social development. pg. 190&191

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Intervention for Preschoolers: Project Head Start

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The most extensive federal program that began in 1965. A typical Head Start center provides children with a year or two of preschool, along with nutritional and health services. Parent involvement is central to the Head Start philosophy. Parents serve on policy counsels, contribute to program planning, work directly with children in classrooms, etc. Gains in IQ and achievement test scores from attending Head Start quickly dissolve. These results occur because Head Start children typically enter inferior public schools in poverty-stricken neighborhoods, which undermine the benefits of preschool education. pg. 191

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Intervention for Preschoolers: Benefits

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Results showed that poverty-stricken children who attended programs scored higher in IQ and achievement than controls during the first two to three years of elementary school. Children and adolescents were less likely to be placed in special education or retained in grade, and a greater number graduated from high school.

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Intervention for Preschoolers: High/Scope Perry Preschool Project

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Program reveled benefits lasting well into adulthoods. By at 27, those who had attended preschool were more likely than no-preschool controls to have graduated from high school and college, have higher earnings, be married, and own their own home. pg. 191

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Child Care

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Preschoolers exposed to substandard child care, especially for long hours, score lower in cognitive and social skills and higher in behavior problems. Good child care enhances cognitive, language, and social development, especially for low SES children-effects that persist into elementary school and, for academic achievement, adolescence. pg. 192

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Educational Television

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Preschoolers who watch Sesame Street and other similar educational programs and getting higher grades, reading more books, and placing more value on achievement in high school. Children's program with slow-paced action and easy-to-follow narratives lead to a greater recall of program content and gains in vocabulary and reading skills in early school grades. Parents with limited education are more likely to engage in practices that heighten TV viewing, including leaving the TV on all day and eating family meals in front of it. The more a child watches prime time shows and cartoons, the less time they spend reading and interacting with others and the poorer their academic skills. pg. 193

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Learning with Computers

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Kindergarteners who use computers to draw or write produce more elaborate pictures and text, make fewer writing errors, and edit their work much as older children do. As long as adults support children's efforts, computer programming promotes improved problem solving and metacognition because children must plan and reflect on their thinking to get their programs to work. pg. 193

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Vocabulary: Fast-Mapping

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Connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter. Research shows that this is how children builds their vocabularies so quickly. Fast-Map labels are used for objects especially rapidly because these refer to concepts that are easy to perceive. pg. 193

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Vocabulary

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After fast-mapping, children will soon add verbs and then modifiers. To fill in words they have not yet learned, children as young as 3 coin new words using ones they already know. Preschoolers also extend language meanings through metaphors. Once vocabulary and general knowledge expand, children also appreciate nonsensory comparisons. pg. 193&194

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