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learning

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a relatively permanent behavior change due to experience.

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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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stimulus

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any event or situation that evokes a response.

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cognitive learning

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the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

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neutral stimulus (NS)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

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unconditioned response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally— naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).

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conditioned response (CR)

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in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

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acquisition

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

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extinction

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in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an uncondi- tioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced.)

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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generalization

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in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

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discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

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operant chamber

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a box (also known as a Skinner box) with an attached recording device to track the rate at which an animal presses the box's bar to obtain a reinforcer. Used in operant conditioning research.

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reinforcement

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior.

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positive reinforcement

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increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A _______ __________ is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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negative reinforcement

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increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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primary reinforcer

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an event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need.

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conditioned reinforcer

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(also known as secondary reinforcer) an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer.

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reinforcement schedule

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a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs.

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

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variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

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fixed-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

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variable-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

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punishment

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an event that decreases the behavior it follows.

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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cognitive map

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a mental image of the layout of one's environment.

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latent learning

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learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

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intrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

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extrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid a punishment.

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observational learning

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learning by observing others.

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modeling

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

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mirror neuron

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neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

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prosocial behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

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