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Expert Teachers

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experienced and effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. They also have elaborate systems of knowledge which are extensive and well organized

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Pedagogical Content Knowledge

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a teacher's knowledge that combines mastery of the content with knowing how to teach it. It also involves knowing how to match instruction to differing styles of learning

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Lesson Study

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professional development process that Japanese teachers use to become better teachers Teachers work together on lessons and develop them, test and retest them until the final product is satisfactory

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Lesson Plan

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predetermined guide for a lesson. It includes the following: The goal/objective of the lesson Necessary materials and equipment required Instructional strategies and sequence of use Assessment method(s) planned

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Instructional Objective

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proposed by Gronlund and Brookhart (2009) these are intended learning outcomes. A clear statement of what students are expected to learn through instruction. It is the proposed outcome of a lesson/unit etc.

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Behavioral Objective

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instructional objective which is stated in terms of observable and measureable behaviors - such as list, recite, name, calculate etc. Relatively easy to measure. Contains three parts: Student Behavior Conditions Under which the Behavior will Occur Performance Criteria

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Cognitive Objective

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instructional objective which is stated in terms of higher-level thinking operations - such as appreciate, develop knowledge, create, apply etc. These are more difficult to measure

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Taxonomy

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a classification system. It can be helpful in planning assessments because different procedures are appropriate for different objectives a various levels. Even though all objectives are not necessarily hierarchical - it still may be a useful assessment tool

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Cognitive Domain

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the first of the three proposed in Bloom's Taxonomy - educational objective which relate to thinking, acquiring information, understanding, analyzing, synthesizing etc. It has 6 objectives: Knowledge/Comprehension/Application/Analysis/ Synthesis/Evaluation

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Higher Level

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application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation

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Lower Level

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knowledge and comprehension

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Affective Domain

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the second of Bloom's domains includes objectives of learning which focus on attitudes and feelings as a result of the learning process. This is refers to the emotional response of learning. It recognizes that learning can evoke feelings and emotions Receiving/Responding/Valuing/Organization/Value Characterization

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Psychomotor Domain

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the third domain propsed by Bloom involves physical ability objectives - these are not limited to sports/dance - but can be incorporated into the classroom. Only recently have they been incorporated into every day curriculum. Various Components: Reflex Movements/Basic Fundamentals /Perceptual Abilities /Physical Abilities /Skilled Movements /Non-discussive Behaviors

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Constructivist Perspective/Approach

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considered to be a learner-centered approach. It derives its name because of the assumption that learners should build (construct) knowledge for themselves.

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Informal Teaching Style

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a teaching approach that grants students a relatively high degree of freedom and autonomy. The emphasis is on individual growth and fulfillment rather than academic achievement.

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Problem-Based Learning

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teaching which implements real-life problem solving (i.e. using the scientific method in science lab to investigate the high incidence of asthma in the community)

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Essential Questions

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questions that reflect the "heart" of curriculum. Asks the most important things that students should explore and learn (i.e. Instead of "What was the effect of the Civil War" vs. "Is the Civil War still going on"?) Thought provoking...

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Guided Discovery Learning

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learning in which students are encouraged to construct their understanding with the assistance of teacher-guided questions or directions. The primary role of instruction is provide the learning environment

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Direct Instruction/Explicit Teaching (Active Teaching)

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a different perspective for instruction which involves a structured teacher-centered approach. It is systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills. Facts and information are emphasized and student interaction is not a primary focus

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Formal Teaching Style

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an approach to teaching that emphasizes competition, individual work, discipline, order, achievement, and external motivators

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Basic Skills

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preliminary structural foundations necessary for further education such as reading and math skills.

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Advance Organizer

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an introductory statement used in direct instruction broad enough to encompass all the information that will follow. The purpose is to direct attention to what is coming, show relationships of what will be presented and bring to mind previously learned material

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Scripted Cooperation

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through out lecture, students pair off to summarize materials and critique one another's summaries. This requires active learning and participation in an otherwise passive situation

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Seat Work

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independent classroom work that is done in the classroom. For it to be effective the objectives must be clear. It may not necessarily be the best way to teach. Learning Centers are a suggested alternative

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Learning Centers

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an in class teaching method offered as an alternative to paper-and-pencil seatwork. The students visit various centers to review concepts and enhance their learning with guided participation

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Homework

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work which must be done outside of the classroom.

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Questioning and Recitation

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asking students questions as part of teacher instruction. Properly phrased questions can get students to engage in the lecture. Questions can help students rehearse information, but they can also pique curiosity or identify gaps in knowledge.

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Convergent Questions

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questions with a single correct answer

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Divergent Questions

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questions with more than one correct answer

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Group Discussion

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conversation in learning in which students pose and answer their own questions. Teacher does not have to play a large role

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Lecturing / Explaining / Demonstrating

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a common method of direct instruction - when teacher provides information, give details, clarify, etc. Effective teachers spend more class time explaining than less effective teachers.

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Expository Instruction

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an approach to instruction in which information is presented in more or less the same form in which students are expected to learn it and be assessed on it - i.e. lab work, dramatization, etc.

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Pygmalion Effect

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students who excel in the classroom continue to do so because teachers in return put high expectations on them

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

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a groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. This effect can be positive or negative

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Sustaining Expectation Effect

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teachers may accurately know what the student is capable of at a given time, but fail to recognize when they may make improvements

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Teacher Competency

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explicit, demonstrable knowledge and skills necessary for performing the role of teacher.

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Merit Pay

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a monetary incentive used to reward teacher competence. It is difficult to decide how to disseminate extra money since there is no universal competency measure for teachers.

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Evaluation

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a judgment about student performance. It often involves a value assessment deciding the quality of a specific performance and is not always objective i.e. "your attitude toward this class is very negative"

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Assessment

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a general term for the process of appraising student performance - may include both measurement and evaluation

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Measurement

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evaluation which gauges the quantity of something - i.e. score of 79/100

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Norm-Referenced Testing

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designed to compare test takers to each other. Scores are compared against the performance results of the others in the group who have taken the test

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Criterion-Referenced Testing

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a test in which students are judged relative to a pre-established criterion rather than relative to other students.

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Standardized Test

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a test given under uniform conditions, scored the same way and these scores are reported in an identical manner

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Norming Sample

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a large sample which serves as a comparison group for scoring standardized tests

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Measures of Central Tendency

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the typical value of a group of numbers. The three most common are the mean, median and mode

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Mean

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the average of all the scores

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Median

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the middlemost score of the group

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Mode

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the score which occurs most frequently

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Standard Deviation

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a measure of how much the scores deviate from the average (mean)

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Variation

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extent of difference in the distribution of scores

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Range

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distance between the highest and lowest score in a group

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Normal Distribution

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the most commonly occurring distribution of scores. The tradition "bell-shaped" curve where the majority of scores fall in the middle and fewer scores are at the end points

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Percentile Rank Score

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another way of reporting scores. It tells the percentage of all who took the test and received a raw score less than or equal to that of that specific student

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Grade/Age-Equivalent Score

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Score indicating the grade or age level of students to whom a student's performance is most similar. This does not mean a child should be accelerated to this grade level

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Standard Scores

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score that indicates how far a student's performance is from the mean with respect to standard deviation units

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Frequency Distribution

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a listing of how many people scored a specific score or within a range of scores

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Reliability

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consistency. The extent to which a test provides dependable results. One can rely on the results obtained from the test.

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Validity

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the extent to which a test measures what it claims.

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Construct Validity

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a construct is a psychological phenomenon including such things as comprehension, motivation, intelligence, creativity etc.

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Criterion Validity

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the extent to which the test actually does what it claims to do.

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Content Validity

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assesses whether or not content being tested is similar to the content of what was taught

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Test/Assessment Bias (Unfair Penalization, Offensiveness)

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if a test design or its results can be interpreted differently or puts certain groups of students at a disadvantage a situation in which a person is penalized because they are unfamiliar with words or references to something which because of their gender, SES, ethnicity, they have no knowledge a disadvantage is created when examples or references are made within a test which are offensive to a particular group - these insults may cause the person to perform less well on the test

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Culture Fair/Culture Free Test

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a test without any cultural bias - this may be virtually impossible to attain

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High-Stakes Testing

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the practice of using students' performance on a single assessment to make major decisions about students and school personal. This in turn may mean they are used as the basis of hiring, firing teachers, funding sources etc.

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Accountability

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an obligation of teachers and schools to accept responsibility for how well students perform on tests.

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No Child Left Behind

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It implemented new measures to hold schools accountable for their students' progress. This then expanded the role of standardized testing, and required students in grades 3 through 8 be tested every year in reading and math.

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Race to the Top

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program was signed into law, inviting states to compete for $4.35 billion in extra funding based on the strength of their student test scores

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Common Core State Standards

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standardized expectations developed by each state to ensure learning. They provide clear and consistent learning goals to help prepare students for their future

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Authentic Assessment

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assessment of students' knowledge and skills in a "real-life" context

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Constructed Response Formats

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assessment procedure that require a student to create an answer rather than choosing for a set of choices

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Formative Assessment

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an evaluation undertaken before and during instruction. It is designed primarily to assist the learner to identify his/her strengths and weaknesses. It is ungraded and used to plan and perhaps diagnose in the classroom

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Summative Assessment

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an evaluation that occurs after an instructional sequence. It is designed primarily to provide a grade and measure what has been learned in the previous instruction

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Objective Tests

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tests where scoring does not require interpretation

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Multiple Choice Tests

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question which consists of a question or incomplete sentence followed by a series of alternatives

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Stem

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the question part of the multiple choice item

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Distracter

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the wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple choice test

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Matching Tests

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assessment that involves generating 2 sets of linked objectives and the student must put them together (i.e. states and their capitals)

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True/False Tests

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a factual statement requiring the student to judge its truthfulness. They are often used because it does not take long to answer them and they can be graded quickly

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Short-Answer/Completion Tests

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tests which utilize posing questions which can be answered with a single word, phrase or a few short sentences - be sure not to use too many blanks in one sentence

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Problems

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students must manipulate or synthesize data and develop a solution to a new problem situation

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Interpretive Exercises

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students are given new material - such as a graph, a table, a map, a paragraph of text, and asked to analyze and draw conclusions from it

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Essay Tests

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a type of test which requires a student to write a lengthy verbal response. They can only test a limited amount of information and scoring them is very time-consuming and subjective

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Portfolio

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a collection of student's work compiled systematically over a lengthy period. It can include paper-pencil tests, photographs, papers etc.

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Exhibition

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a performance test that is public and requires many hours of preparation

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Scoring Rubrics

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an outline of the criteria for a performance or essay type assessment. It includes specifications for what the task or essay should contain and how varying levels of the performance will be graded

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Criteria

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specifications of what is expected of students on an assessment. They are rules used to determine the quality of a student performance

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Criterion-Referenced Grading

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grades are assigned based on the student's performance on pre-set criteria. Each student's grade is assigned independent of the other students in the class

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Norm-Referenced Grading

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grades are assigned relative to other students in the class and their relative performance

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Grading on the Curve

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a specific type of norm-referenced grading. Student grades are compared to the average level and assigned accordingly

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Point System

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points are earned throughout the semester on tests and assignments. The points earned are divided by the points possible to calculate the percentage

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Percentage Grading

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grades are determined when teachers calculate percentage scores for various tests and assignments and then these percentages are averaged. The percentage is then converted into a letter grade

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Contract System

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the requirements for each letter grade are determined in terms of the type of assignments to be completed, their quantity as well as quality. The student "contracts" for a certain grade. A negative aspect is that it may focus on quantities

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Halo Effect

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people are more likely to perceive positive behaviors in someone they like or admire - the opposite can be true as well. This is to be considered a caution in grading

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Characteristics of Effective Teachers

answer

Teachers' Knowledge / Clarity / Explanatory Links / Warmth and Enthusiasm / Expert Teachers / Pedagogical Content Knowledge /

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Teachers' Knowledge

answer

an effective teacher possesses knowledge but is also able to convey that knowledge in a usable manner

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Clarity

answer

being clear on what is being taught and presenting it in an organized fashion

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Explanatory Links

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part of an effective lesson - creates relationships between what is already known and what is currently being presented - Use terms such as because of, in order to...

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Warmth and Enthusiasm

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"Kids Don't Care How Much You Know Until They Know You Care" Students will learn better in an atmosphere in which they feel the teacher cares about them and what they learn Enthusiasm can be contagious in a classroom!

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Three aspects of classroom climate related to learning in

answer

Teacher emotional support (affective) Teacher instructional support (cognitive) Classroom organization (behavioral)

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Importance of Planning

answer

Planning influences what students learn A school year involves multiple levels of planning Planning can reduce (not eliminate!) uncertainty Planning is enhanced with collaboration There is "no one size fits all" in planning

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Gronlund and Brookhart's Instructional Objectives

answer

these are intended learning outcomes. A clear statement of what students are expected to learn through instruction. It is the proposed outcome of a lesson/unit etc.

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Mager's Instructional Objectives

answer

advocated the use of behavioral objectives as instructional objectives and they must specify what the learner should be able to do after they have received instruction.

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Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom 2001)

answer

proposed an educational evaluation system. The purpose was to restructure college and university examinations 3 Domains - Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor

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Constructivist Perspective

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considered to be a learner-centered approach. It derives its name because of the assumption that learners should build (construct) knowledge for themselves. In this approach, planning is shared by both the teacher and the student and allows for negotiation. Teachers do not simply pour information into the minds of children, but instead students are encouraged to: Explore their world Discover Knowledge Think Critically Reflect

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Direct Instruction

answer

a different perspective for instruction which involves a structured teacher-centered approach. It is systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills. Facts and information are emphasized and student interaction is not a primary focus in contrast to the constructivist approach and is considered a formal teaching style.

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Rosenshine's Six Teaching Functions

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Review and Check the Previous Day's Work Present New Material Provide Guided Practice Give Feedback and Correctives Provide Independent Practice Review Weekly and Monthly

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National PTA and the National Education Association (NEA) recommendations for homework

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From kindergarten to third grade, no more than 10-20 minutes per day. It is also suggested that homework during the early years should foster a love of learning and hone study skills. It is not about the work, but rather to help shape the learning process From fourth to sixth grade, 20 to 40 minutes/day. From seventh to twelfth grade, the recommended amount of time varies according to the type and number of subjects a student is taking. In general, college-bound students receive lengthier and more involved homework than students preparing to enter the workforce immediately after graduation

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Hattie and Timperley (2007) Model of Feedback

answer

proposed three feedback questions: "Where am I going?" "How am I going?" "Where to next?"

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Research by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1987) - "Oak School" Experiment

answer

Method: Teachers were told they were part of an experiment to determine the effectiveness of a new test designed to predict academic "blooming" or "spurters" The teachers were told that "Blooming Students" or "Spurters" were identified by the test as children who are likely to suddenly show intellectual spurts. However, the actual test given was simply an IQ test, and the students were chosen at random Tests were given in the spring and the following September the teachers were given the erroneous information by "casually" mentioning names of the "spurters" In actuality, the only distinguishing feature was the expectations created by the casual mentioning of names Results: Teacher expectations were fulfilled. Students identified as spurters indeed did just that in the classroom - they excelled!

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Issue of Teacher Competency

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Is it years of experience, student evaluation, peer evaluation, supervisor evaluation ...? Evaluating a teacher's competencies can be difficult as there is no specific test to adequately measure teacher effectiveness

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Potential Misinterpretation of Test Scores

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Part of the reason for misunderstanding test results is that numbers have a clear-cut quality to them. As a result, numbers may be interpreted as having more meaning than they actually do and people forget there is a certain amount of bias in all tests. Even the tests that are well designed can be misused.

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Sources of Bias in Testing (Assessment Bias, Unfair Penalization, Offensiveness)

answer

Assessment Bias - if a test design or its results can be interpreted differently or puts certain groups of students at a disadvantage Unfair Penalization - a situation in which a person is penalized because they are unfamiliar with words or references to something which because of their gender, SES, ethnicity, they have no knowledge Offensiveness - a disadvantage is created when examples or references are made within a test which are offensive to a particular group - these insults may cause the person to perform less well on the test

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Types of Standardized Tests

answer

Achievement Tests, Diagnostic Tests, Scholastic Aptitude Tests, Specific Aptitude Tests

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Achievement Tests

answer

tests to assess how much students have learned from what they have been specifically taught

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Diagnostic Tests

answer

tests administered to identify special learning problems. They are usually given on an individual basis as warranted

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Scholastic Aptitude Tests

answer

test designed to assess general capacity to learn and used to predict future academic success (SAT, ACT etc.)

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Specific Aptitude Tests

answer

test designed to predict future ability to succeed in a particular content domain and the predictions of success are limited to that content area

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Alternatives to Standardized Testing

answer

Authentic Assessment, Constructed-Response Format

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Authentic Assessment

answer

assessment of students' knowledge and skills in a "real-life" context

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Constructed-Response Format

answer

assessment procedure that require a student to create an answer rather than choosing for a set of choices

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Dempster (1993) theory of "teach them less"

answer

examined research on testing and in particular when and how to test. He offers 3 recommendations: Test Frequently Test Soon After Material is Covered Use Cumulative Questions He feels that the current curriculum does not allow for frequent testing. His suggestion is to cover less material and cover it more in depth. This would allow more time for learning by permitting time for review, practice, testing and feedback refers to the current way schools are teaching results in students who are "overstuffed and undernourished." In various subjects such as science, mathematics, and social studies, students are receiving fleeting exposure to a vast amount of material He cites as evidence that textbooks in Japan and Singapore are more concise and focus on a few examples, whereas the U.S. texts are laden with more information and detail.

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Beliefs About Human Learning

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Curriculum decisions appear to be informed by the conviction that "more is better" and that just about anything that "enriches the meaning" of a lesson will assist learning.

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Starch & Elliot (1912) study of subjectivity in grading essay tests

answer

They chose 2 English papers and distributed them to 200 high school English teachers. Each was asked to score the paper according to his/her school's standards. A percentage scale was used with 75% as a passing grade Results: Paper #1 - Scores ranged from 64% - 98% and the average was 88.2 Paper #2 - Scores ranged from 50% - 97% and the average was 80.2

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Brimi (2011) Follow up

answer

replicated Starch and Elliot's work. In this experiment 73 high school teachers graded the same student paper. (They were trained to use NWREL's "6+1 Traits of Writing.") Results: Scores ranged from 50 to 96 (on a 100- point scale) Conclusions: Starch and Elliot's work was supported

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Ways to decrease subjectivity in essay tests

answer

Construct a model answer Assign point values to aspects of the essay Put student's names on the back of their papers When possible ask another teacher for input

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Grading improvement

answer

assigning a value to how much a student progresses during a grading period. This can be subjective and may penalize students who consistently do well the entire semester

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Grading effort

answer

a subjective assessment of how much a student tries throughout a grading session. This can penalize students who may not need to exert as much effort and maintain good grades.

question

Grading extra credit

answer

no actual research exists to support or refute the value of extra credit. Often instructors view grades as being the measure of how well the students do in regard to the instructional objectives for the course. Thus assigning one or two students extra work is not a reliable measure of mastery

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Pros and Cons of using extra credit

answer

Pro: Extra Credit can be an effective tool in the classroom if used in the correct manner. It is important to look at extra credit critically before using it in class Con: Something to consider is if there are too many opportunities for extra credit it could possibly outweigh the required assignments to the point where a student could pass without meeting all the standards.

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