Chapter 1: The study of body function – Flashcards
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homeostasis
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keeping the body in balance
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2 ways body maintains homeostasis
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1)intrinsic control 2)extrinsic control
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intrinsic control
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"local"- something near by the problem will be signaled to respond to the problem (ex: vasodilation of the blood vessels near overworked leg muscle to increase the blood flow)
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extrinsic control
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"outside"- something far away or outside of the problem will be signaled to respond to the problem (ex: chemoreceptors found in the carotid arteries responding to overworked leg muscles)
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4 parts of homeostasis
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1)stimulus 2)sensor 3)integrating center 4)effector
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stimulus
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causes a change in balance
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what causes a change in balance and is noticed by sensors?
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stimulus
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sensor
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notices the stimulus and sends information out afferent pathway
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how does a sensor send information out?
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by afferent pathway
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what does the sensor notice?
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the stimulus
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integrating center
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receives information from sensor and establishes the "setpoint", then analyzes and sends information out efferent pathway
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integrating center receives info. from what?
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the sensor
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this establishes the setpoint
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integrating center
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integrating center analyzes the info received from the sensor and then send info out through what?
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the efferent pathway.
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effector
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the organ that carries out the directions given by the integrating center
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This is the major physiological response to a stimulus
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negative feedback
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what does a negative feedback always do to a stimulus?
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opposes it
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this is the less common method to achieve homeostasis
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positive feedback
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what does a positive feedback do to the set point?
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it ignores the set point
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What does a positive feedback response do to the stimulus?
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intensifies the stimulus instead of opposing it
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2 examples of positive feedback
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1)blood clotting 2) parturition of birth
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3 examples of negative feedback
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1)body temp 2) blood sugar 3) heart rate
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antagonistic effectors is described as what?
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"push-pull"
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antagonistic effector
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increasing activity is accompanied by decreasing activity of an antagonistic effector
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what are cells?
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the basic units of life
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how are cells grouped?
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by their similar functions
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what are cells grouped into?
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tissue
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4 majore types of tissue
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1)muscle 2)nervous 3)epithelial 4)connective tissue
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what are organs?
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grouping of the 4 primary tissue into anatomical and functional units
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what are organs grouped into?
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systems
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how are organs grouped?
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by common function
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3 types of muscle tissue
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1)skeletal 2) cardiac 3) smooth
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which muscle is often called voluntary muscle?
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skeletal muscle
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2 muscle tissue that are striated
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1)skeletal 2) cardiac
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contraction of skeletal muscle produces what?
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movements of the skeleton
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4 parts of the body that contain skeletal muscle but don't contract voluntarily
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1)anal sphincter 2)diaphragm 3)superior portion of the esophagus 4)tongue
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myoblasts fuse together during embryonic development to form what?
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skeletal muscle fibers (myofibers)
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how are muscle fibers arranged?
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in bundles
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why are the muscle fibers in a parallel arrangement?
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so the muscle fibers can be controlled individually allowing one to contract fewer or more muscle fibers which varies the strength of contraction of the whole muscle
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what is the only location cardiac muscle is found?
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in the heart
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what is the difference of contraction in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle?
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stimulation of one myocardinal cell results in the stimulation of all other cells in the mass and contracts as one whole. skeletal muscle can contract some myofibers
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what is the arrangement of smooth muscle?
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circular and longitudinal layers
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what is the contraction motion of smooth muscle?
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wave like-peristalsis
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what does nervous tissue consists of?
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neurons
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what are neurons?
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nerve cells
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what are the supporting cells of nervous tissue?
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glial cells (neuroglial)
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3 parts of a neuron
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1)cell body 2)axon 3) dendrite
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cell body of a neuron contains what?
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the nucleus
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what does the cell body serve as?
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the metabolic center of the cell
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what does dendrites receive?
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input from other neuron or from receptor cells
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an axon is single cytoplasmic extension of what?
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the cell body
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what does axons do?
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conduct nerve impulses from the cell body to another neuron or to an effector (muscle or gland) cell.
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neuroglial cells do not do what?
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conduct impulses
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epithelial tissue has cells that form what?
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membranes
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2 things membranes cover and line
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the body surfaces and glands
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2 kinds categories of glands
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1)endocrine 2)exocrine
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endocrine glands secrete what?
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hormones into the blood
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exocrine glands secrete their chemicals through what?
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a duct which leads to the outside of a membrane.
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how are epithelial membranes classified?
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by the number of layers and shape of the cells.
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epithelial cells provide a barrier b/w what 2 things of the body?
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1)the external environment 2)the internal environment
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simple epithelial membranes are specialized for what?
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transportation of substances b/w the internal and external environments; that's why it is made up of only one layer
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what kind of cells are found in columnar epithelial cells?
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goblet cells
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goblet cells secrete what?
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mucous
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what is keratin?
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dead cells that are filled with a water-resistant protein and they are on the surface of the epidermis
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how many weeks is the epidermis replaced?
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every 2 weeks.
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the stratified squamous epithelial membrane that all layers consist of living cells is what?
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nonkeratinized
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the stratified squamous epithelial membrane of the epidermis is what?
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keratinized or cornified
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how are epithelial cells packed and joined together very closely?
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by structures called junctional complexes
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there is no room for what b/w adjacent epithelial cells?
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blood vessels
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b/c there is no room for blood vessels b/w adjacent epithelial cells, how do they receive their nourishment?
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from the tissue beneath which is connective tissue
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how are epithelial cells connected to the underlying connective tissue?
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by a basement membrane
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2 things the basement membrane is composed of
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1)proteins 2)polysaccharides
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the top and bottom layer of the epithelial cells are different in what 2 things?
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1)structure 2)functions
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in stratified membranes, what does the basal layer of cells that is on the basement membrane undergo?
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mitosis
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why does the basal layer of cells that is on the basement membrane undergo mitosis?
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to replace the epithelial cells on the top that were lost with new cells
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what are exocrine glands derived from?
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cell from epithelial membrane
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how do exocrine glands secrete their substances to the outside part of the epithelial membrane?
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by ducts
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endocrine glands lack what?
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ducts
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b/c endocrine glands lack ducts, where do they secret their substances into?
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the capillaries with the body.
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exocrine glands contain what cells that contract and squeeze their secretions through the ducts
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myoepithelial cells
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what are the glands that secrete into the digestive tract considered as?
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exocrine
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3 organs that are both exocrine and endocrine
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1)liver 2)pancreas 3)gonads
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how are connective tissue characterized?
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by the large amounts of extracellular material b/w the different types of connective tissue.
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4 types of connective tissue
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1)connective tissue proper 2)cartilage 3)bone 4)blood
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why is blood considered a type of connective tissue?
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because half of its volume is an extracellular fluid which is blood plasma.
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3 subtypes of connective tissue proper
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1)loose connective tissue 2)dense regular connective tissue 3)dense irregular connective tissue
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how are loose connective tissue scattered?
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loosely
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because of its loose orientation, what 2 things does loose connective tissue provide space for?
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1)blood vessels 2)nerve fibers
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how are dense regular connective tissue arranged?
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they are parallel to each other and densely packed in the extracellular matrix leaving little room.
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2 kinds of dense regular connective tissue
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1)tendons 2)ligaments
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example of dense regular connective tissue
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bone
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example of fibrous connective tissue
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cartilage
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example of loose connective tissue
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adipose tissue
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what are organs?
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a structure composed of at least two and usually all four primary tissue
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zygote divides to produce what 3 germ layers?
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1)ectoderm 2)mesoderm 3)endoderm
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during embyronic and fetal development, the 3 germ layers give rise to what?
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the four primary tissues and their subtypes.
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what are systems?
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what organs that are located in different parts of the body and perform related functions are grouped into
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11 organ systems
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1)Muscular 2)skeletal 3)reproductive 4)integumentary 5)endocrine 6)nervous 7)circulatory 8)urinary 9)digestive 10)respiratory 11)lymphatic *My Sister Rachel Is Extremely Nervous Cause Uncle Donny Recently Lied
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2 ways that tissues, organs, and systems can be divided into major parts, or compartments
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1)intracellular compartment 2)extracellular compartment
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what is intracellular compartment?
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part inside the cells
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what is extracellular compartment?
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part outside the cells
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how are intracellular/extracellular compartments separated?
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by a cell membrane surrounding each cell
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2 subdivisions of extracellular compartment
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1)blood plasma 2)tissue fluid (interstitial fluid)
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what is the fluid portion of the blood?
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blood plasma
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what is the fluid that bathes the cells within the organ?
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interstitial fluid (tissue fluid)
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both interstitial and extracellular compartments are composed of what
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water (they are said to be aqueous)
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65% of water is in what compartment?
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Interstitial compartment.
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35% of water is in what compartment?
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extracellular compartment.
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what does it mean for something to be totipotent?
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it can produce all of the different specialized cell types in the body (ex. the zygote that gives rise to all 3 germ layers)
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what are adult stem cells?
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specialized cells that lose the ability to divide and make themselves; limited lifespan, less-differentiated cells
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adult stem cells are described as what?
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multipotent;
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embryonic stem cells are considered what?
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pulripotent
