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-manipulation of one or more independent variables -measured dependent variables -everything else is held constant

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experimental control

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three things that must be met in order to make a casual inference

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-covariation -temporal order -the absence of plausible alternative explanations

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term for when x changes, y changes

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covariation

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term for the change in x occurs before change in y

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temporal order

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term for the presence of factors that may have influenced a result

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the absence of plausible explanations

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confounding variables cannot tell whether the

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independent or confounding variable affects the dependent variable

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in _____ many environmental factors can be held constant and they the ones that cannot can be balanced across different experimetnal designs

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confounding variables

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using confounding variables, psychologists will employ a ____subjects design or a _____subjects design

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between or within subjects design

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the term for having different participants in each condition

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between subjects design

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in ____ confounding variables are minimized through random assignment

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between subjects design

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researchers hope to avoid ____in which the experimenter consistently alters his/her behavior toward participants based on a particular condition they are in

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systematic bias

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the term for when participants encounter all levels of an experiment

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within-subjects design

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in ____ confounding variables are minimized through counter balancing

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within-subjects design

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___ ensures that participants experience the independent variable levels in different ways

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counter balancing

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has only one independent variable and the independent variable must have two levels.

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single-factor design

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If an experiment with more than one independent variable has more than two levels it is called a ___

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single-factor multi-level design

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multi-level designs cannot determine __

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nonlinear effects

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when determining the number of conditions we must consider __.

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the resources available to us

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experiment that studied conformity in which various sized groups performed a series of simple visual tasks, judging the length of lines. Only one member was a real participant. He found that conformity increased as group size increased from 1 to 4 members, but afterwards group size had no effect.

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Soloman's Asch's experiment in 1955

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experiment that was able to examine whether the relation between alcohol dose and self perceived performance impairment was nonlinear. Found that alcohol increased sleepiness and decreased performance in a linear fashion and that alcohol affected cognitive task performance. People failed to recognize alcohol impairing effects until they were drunk.

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Timothy Roechr's and his collegeus study

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participants in an ____ condition are exposed to a treatment

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experimental

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participants in a ________ condition do not receive the treatment.

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control

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one common way to create experimental and control conditions is to

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manipulate the presence vs absence of some factor

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-has no carry over effects -less likely that participants will catch on tot he hypothesis -exposure to multiple levels of independent variables may be impossible and difficult

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advantages of between subjects design

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Used ducks and found that imprinting was most likely to occur when a duck was exposed to the model between 13-16 hours after hatching.

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-Hess's study in 1959 -between subjects design experiment

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-different people in each condition generate more noise such as variability, making it more difficult to establish an effect of the independent and dependent variable. -more participants required

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disadvantages of between subjects design

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in __we conduct a round of all conditions and then another until we complete the experiment. Within each round, the order of conditions are randomly determined

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block randomization

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in this type of design, participants are randomly assigned to conditions and __helps overcome the issues

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between subjects designs: independent groups, block randomization

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this type of design runs through random order of blocks until desired sample size is reached

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between subjects design: independant groups

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in between subjects design: independent groups what factors are part of this design

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-participants are randomly assigned to conditions and block randomization helps overcome the issues. -runs through random order of blocks until desired sample size is reached

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in this type of design we identify a relevant characteristic and randomly assign participants to conditions based on their standing characteristic

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between subjects design: matched group

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in this type of design, its wise to use possible confounds as matching variables

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between subjects design: matched group

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what are the 3 common approaches to independent variables

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-altering the physical and social environment -varying such as interventions, tasks, and strategies -manipulating organism's characteristics

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if an experiment had only two conditions then we would__ in a matched group

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-match pairs of participants and randomly assign a member of each pair to each condition

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in between subjects design: matched group, it is impractical to

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match participants on the same attribute that will be assessed later by the dependent measure.

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match participants on the same attribute that will be assessed later by the dependent measure may __

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confuse participants about the purpose of the experiment

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in between subjects design: matched group, instead of matching participants on the same variable that constitutes the dependent measure an alternative is to __

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match them on some other variable that we are concerned about as a possible confounding factor

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in between subjects design: matched group, by gathering large amounts of participants for an experiment, ___

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many researchers choose to rely solely on random assignment to create equivalent group and let chance "balance out" what might be too many potential matching variables to keep track of.

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in this type of design, rather than manipulate the independent variable, we create different groups of participants based on naturally occurring attributes called __

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natural groups design, subject variables

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what are some examples of subject variables

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age, gender, personality

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subject variables are often referred to as__

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quasi independent variables

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is personal a characteristic in which people vary from one another

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subject variable

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in wondering if natural groups are a design or an experiment , there are __ areas of disagreements

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two

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-looks at if we should consider a subject variable as the sole basis for creating different groups. This is a ___ and a ___

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-is an area if disagreement on whether natural groups are a design or an experiment -"does a single factor natural groups design constitute an experiment?

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a natural groups design is a_ not a __

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correlational study not an experiment.

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In __each member of the population has an equal probability of being selected into a sample chosen to participate in a study

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random sampling

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this is an example of: "from a population 240 million adults in a nation, a random sample of 1000 people are selected and asked to participate in a survey"

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random sampling

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the goal of random sampling is to

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select a sample of people whose characteristics are representative of the broader population from which those people have been drawn.

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__is when people have agreed to participate in a study assigned to the various conditions of the study on a random basis.

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random assignment

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in __each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any particular condition

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random assignment

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the goal of random assignment is to

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take a sample of people you randomly get and place them into specific conditions of the experiment in an unbiased way.

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in __before the exposure in the independent variable, we assume that the groups of participants in various conditions are equivalent to one another overall

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random assignment

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in an experiment, the purpose of random assignment is not to

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select a sample of participants that is representative of the overall population.

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advantages of within subjects design

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-called repeated measures design -need fewer participants -can collect more data per condition -required to investigate certain research questions -does not have to worry about non equivalent groups

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disadvantages of within subjects design

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-greater likelihood that participants will catch on t the experiment's purpose -cannot accommodate all research questions

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what are the three types of order effects

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-order sequence effect -progressive effect -carryover effect

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this type of effect occurs when participants are affected by the order in which they encounter conditions.

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order sequence effects

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this type of effect occurs when participants are altered by the sequence of conditions they encounter and acquire experience with the task and thus improve performance

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progressive effects

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this type of effect occurs when participant's responses in one condition are affected by the prior condition we can avoid carryover effects by having counterbalancing

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progressive effects

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counter balancing does not prevent _ from occurring

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order effects

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the goals of counterbalancing are

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-every condition of the independent variable appears equally often in each position -every condition appear often before and after every other condition -every condition appears with equal frequency before and after every other conflict within each pair of positions in the overall sequence

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Latin squares of within subject designs examines design in two general categories once

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once or more than once

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in this design, the conditions of an independent variable are arranged in every possible sequence and an equal number of participants are assigned in each sequence

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all possible orders design

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this type of design is also known as complete counterbalancing design

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all possible orders design

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in all possible orders, every possible confounding effect is__

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counter balanced

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all possible orders design requires large number of ___ to __

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participants to satisfy all counterbalancing goals.

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__is a matrix design where the matrix is structured so that_

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latin square, each condition appears only once in each column and row

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__accomplishes goals of all all possible orders design

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latin square

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an alternative method of the latin square is __

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randomly starting over with rotation

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is a subset of orders that is randomly selected from the set of all possible orders

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random selected orders

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in random selected orders, each order is__

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administered to one participant

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when performing random selected orders one should refrain from

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using with a small number of participants

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in random selected orders if the subject sample is too small, what will happen

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there wont be enough random orders selected

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counterbalancing should not be used when

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the number of subjects is too small

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some within subjects designs may

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-be more practical than other counterbalancing options, let's you examine reliability of participant's responses, and extends generalizability of results

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what happens in block randomization design

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all participants encounter all conditions within a block and are exposed to multiple blocks.

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each block contains a newly randomized order of conditions

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-block randomization design

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is also called an aaba-counterbalancing design

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-reverse counterbalancing

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participants first random order of all conditions and then receive another condition once more in the reverse order and there cant be nonlinear effects

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-reverse counter balancing

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when making sense of an experimental data some factors are__ and __

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t-test, analysis of variance

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what does a t- test examine

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examines the mean difference between two conditions

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analysis of variance is used with

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three or more conditions

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an analysis of variance would be preferable when

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there are three conditions

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researchers use descriptive statistics to __

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summarize their data and use inferential statistics to help them determine whether their findings are statistically significance that is unlikely to be due simply to chance

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analysis of variance helps researchers determine__

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whether the overall pattern of difference among the mean scores of the conditions are statistically significant.

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when a single factor experiment has only two conditions only a __ or __ can be used.

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t-test or analysis of variance

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__ and _ are counterbalancing approaches that expose each participant to each condition more than once

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block randomization and aaba designs

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A researcher designs a study to examine the impact of students' stress on academic performance. The researcher looks at the effects of several different types of stress, including academic problems, family conflicts, and friendship conflicts on students' grades. This is an example of a ________________ design.

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single factor multi level design

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A student researcher is told that he must use a single-factor design for his course project. He knows that this will require him to have one independent variable in order to meet the requirement of single-factor design. However, his friend reminds him that his independent variable must also

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have at least 2 conditions

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An experimenter is looking at the effects of the color of a sign that gives participants negative feedback about their performance on a test. The experimenter places half of the participants in a small room and the other half of the participants in a large room. He then randomly assigns the participants to one of two groups: exposure to a blue sign or exposure to a red sign. In this experiment, room size is an example of a( n) ______________ variable

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confounding

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An independent variable can vary by amount or type so that it can be manipulated

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quantitatively and qualitatively

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An experimenter wants a representative group of students from a local grade school and selects 200 students to participate in a study. This is an example of:

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random sampling

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In order to determine precisely which level of concentration of sucrose the participants liked the most, the experimenters would have to perform a( n) _____ test.

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ANOVA post-hoc tests

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One of the major disadvantages of complete counterbalancing is that:

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it requires a large number of participants

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An experimenter investigating the effect of three types of soda (root beer; cola; ginger ale) on liquid consumption randomly selects a subset of orders of the sodas and then administers each order to one participant. This is an example of a _______________ design

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random selected orders

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A confounding variable is a threat to establishing causality because it __________, so it is impossible to determine which variable caused the dependent variable to change

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covaries with the independent variable

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In order to reduce the impact of differences in participant characteristics, a researcher ensures that each participant has an equal probability of assignment to any one of the conditions in the experiment. This is an example of:

answer

random assignment

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A psychologist wants to examine the effects of conscientiousness on the amount of time a participant will persist in a task. She brings participants into the laboratory, where they are required to fill out a scale on conscientiousness and then engage in a task. She then places participants into groups of low, medium, and high conscientiousness and compares their times on the task. This is an example of a( n):

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experiment with subject variable

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When a participant engages in only one condition of an experiment, it is called a ________________ design

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between subjects

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A researcher conducts an experiment with 100 children. Different children are assigned to each of the conditions of the experiment. The experiment is an example of a

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between subjects design

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By excluding alcoholic participants who had been detoxified from alcohol, the experimenters are trying to control for other variables. They are trying to avoid the:

answer

third variable problem

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