Ch. 8 Psychology – Flashcards
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cross-sectional design
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developmental research design is used when different participants of various ages are compared at the same time to determine age-related differences
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longitudinal design
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developmental research design is used when the same participants are studied at different ages to determine age-related changes
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cross-sequential design
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developmental research design is used when different participants of various ages are compared at several points in time, to determine age-related differences and changes
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human development
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scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death
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cohort effect
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impact on development when a group of people share a common time period or life experience
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nature
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the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
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behavioral genetics
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focuses on nature vs. nurture
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genetics
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the science of inherited traits
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DNA
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special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism
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gene
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section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements
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dominant
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a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait
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recessive
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a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene
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chromosome
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tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
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chromosomal disorders
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Down syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, and Turner's syndrome are examples of ....
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genetic disorders
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PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease are examples of ...
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conception
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the moment at which a female becomes pregnant
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ovum
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the female sex cell, or egg
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fertilization
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the union of the ovum and sperm
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zygote
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cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby
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monozygotic twins
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-identical twins -Formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
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dizygotic twins
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-fraternal twins -Occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
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germinal period
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first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
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embryo
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is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization
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embryonic period
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the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
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critical periods
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times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant
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teratogen
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any factor that can cause a birth defect
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fetal period
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the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
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fetus
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name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby
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viability
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the point at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb; usually about twenty-two to twenty-six weeks
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reflexes infants are born with
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Grasping,Moro (startle),Rooting ,Stepping, and sucking are all
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six
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Infants have ... motor milestones.
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raising head and chest
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Milestone achieved between 2-4 months
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rolling over
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Milestone achieved between 2-5 months
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sitting up with support
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Milestone achieved between 4-6 months
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sitting up without support
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Milestone achieved between 6-7 months
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crawling
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Milestone achieved between 7-8 months
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walking
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Milestone achieved between 8-18 months
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vision
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The only sense that is not fairly well developed at birth.
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6 months
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20/20 vision is reached by about ...
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binocular vision
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develops around 4.5 months
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synaptic pruning
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unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connects and cells
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cognitive development
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the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
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Jean Piaget
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developed a four-stage theory cognitive development based on observation of infants and children
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schemes
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mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situation and events
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Piaget's Stage of Theory
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made of sensorimotor, preoperational stage, concrete operations stage,formal operations
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sensorimotor stage
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Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses his or her senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment
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objective permanence
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the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight
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birth to 2 years old
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Sensorimotor stage occurs from ........
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preoperational stage
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Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world ....
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egocentrism
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the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes
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centration
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in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features
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2-7 years old
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preoperational stage occurs between ........
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conservation
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in Piaget's theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature
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irreversibly
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in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action
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concrete operations stage
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third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-aged child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking
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7 to 12 years old
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concrete operations stage occurs between ......
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formal operations
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Piaget's last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking
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12 years old to adulthood
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Formal operations occurs between ........
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scaffolding
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the process by which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable
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zone of proximal development
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the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher
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private speech
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Vygotsky viewed this as a way for a child to "think out loud" and advance cognitively
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language development
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-Thinks in words rather than images -Ask questions -Communicate their needs -Form concepts are what .... ....... allows
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child-directed speech
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children attend to higher-pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech
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Stages of language development
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-Cooing -Babbling -One-word speech (holophrases) -Telegraphic speech -Whole sentences
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Genie Wiley
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-She was abused by her parents. -Tied to a chair and left alone. -She wasn't discovered until the age of 12. -Became a famous case study. -She didn't know how to do anything. -It took her almost 4 years to say something. -She had to be taught how to do just about everything. -It provided support to the Lenneberg theory
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Autism spectrum disorder
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developmental disorder encompassing a range of problems in thinking, feeling, language, and social skills
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easy
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regular, adaptable, and happy
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difficult
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irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable
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slow to warm up
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need to adjust gradually to change
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attachment
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the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver
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secure
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willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon her return
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avoidant
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unattached; explores without "touching base"
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ambivalent
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insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return
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disorganized-disoriented
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insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed
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Harlow's Monkey Experiment
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-In this experiment, the wire surrogate "mother" provides the food for this infant rhesus monkey. But the infant spends all this time with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate. According to ..., this demonstrates the importance of contact comfort in attachment.
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self-concept
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-image you have of yourself -Based on your interactions with the important people in your life
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Trust vs. Mistrust
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-The infant's basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care - birth- 1 year old
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Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
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-The toddler strives for physical independence - 1-3 years old
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Initiative vs. Guilt
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-The preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy his or her curiosity about the world -3-5 years old
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Industry vs. Inferiority
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-The adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem. -5-12 years old
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gender
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the psychological aspects of being male or female
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gender roles
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cultural expectations regarding the behavior of a person who is perceived as male or female, including attitudes, actions, and personality traits associated with a particular gender within that culture
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gender identity
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sense of being male or female
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social learning theory
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-emphasis on learning through observation and imitation -Rewarded for appropriate gender behavior -Ignored or discouraged for gender-inappropriate behavior
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gender schema theory
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-combination of social learning theory and cognitive development -Children develop schemas for being male and female
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androgyny
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gender role characteristic of people whose personalities reflect the characteristics of both males and females, regardless of gender
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adolescence
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the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
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puberty
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the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak
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four years
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How long does puberty last?
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risk takers
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Adolescents are ... .....
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STIs
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Since adolescents are risk takers that makes them vulnerable to ....
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personal fable
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young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm
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imaginary audience
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young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are
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Kohlberg's Levels of Morality
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preconventional,conventional, and postconventional are all ... .... .. .......
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Preconventional morality
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-behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior -Very young children
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conventional morality
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-behavior is governed by conforming to society's norms of behavior -Older children, adolescents, and most adults
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postconventional morality
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-behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual -May be in disagreement with accepted social norms -About one fifth of the adult population
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identity vs. role confusion
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-fifth stage of personality development -Adolescent must find a consistent sense of self.
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consistent sense of self
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Adolescent must find a ..... ... .. ....
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adulthood
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-begins in the early twenties and ends with old age and death. -Divided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood -Emerging adulthood: the time from late adolescence through the twenties
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young,middle, and late
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Adulthood is divided into ... adulthood, .... adulthood, and .... adulthood.
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emerging adulthood
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the time from late adolescence through the twenties
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climacteric
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Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the ....
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menopause
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the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman's reproductive capability
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andropause
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gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males
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aging
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-Increase in Health Problems -Decrease in reaction time -Challenges in memory are most likely caused by stress and high volumes of information to maintain are all a result of .....
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intimacy vs. isolation
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-an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self -Early adulthood twenties and thirties
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generativity vs. stagnation
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-providing guidance to one's children or the next generation, or contributing to the well being of the next generation through career or volunteering -Middle adulthood forties and fifties -Parenting Styles Authoritarian parenting Permissive parenting Permissive neglectful Permissive indulgent Authoritative parenting
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parenting styles
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-Authoritarian parenting -Permissive parenting -Permissive neglectful -Permissive indulgent -Authoritative parenting are all examples of .... ....
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ego integrity vs. despair
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-sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego -Late adulthood sixties and beyond
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cellular clock theory
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-based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce -Once that limit is reached, damaged cells being to accumulate.
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wear and tear theory
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as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body's tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage
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free radical theory
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oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go
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activity theory
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theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby
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Stages of Death and Dying
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-Denial -Anger -Bargaining -Depression -Acceptance
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menopause
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The cessation of ovulation and the menstrual cycle is called ....
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social learning theory
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-Rebecca is the youngest child in her family with four older brothers. Rebecca has a female friend over and wants to drive remote-controlled cars. Rebecca's friend says, "Girls don't play with cars! I don't play with cars. I want to play with dolls." From then on, Rebecca will play only with dolls. This is an example of
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stem cells
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.... ..... which may be used to grow new organs or tissues for transplant or to repair neurological damage, develop during the germinal period.
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zygote
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An ovum that was released from Tonya's ovary into her fallopian tube was fertilized four days ago, resulting in pregnancy. At this stage of her pregnancy, the developing organism that Tonya is carrying is called a .....
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egocentrism
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Three-year-old Kara loves Barbie dolls, so she decides to give one to her mother for Christmas. This is:
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nervous system
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Pediatricians use reflexes to determine whether or not an infant's .... ..... is working properly.
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Cheyenne
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The ...... believe that many infants are the living embodiment of ancestors.
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about 2 years after the beginning of the growth spurt
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Puberty begins:
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inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.
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In the study of human development, the term nature refers to: the influence of our
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memory ability
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Changes in ..... ..... are probably the most noticeable changes in middle-aged cognition.
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Hindus
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The .... believe that it is important to surround the dying with family.
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touch
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By using techniques such as the habituation method, researchers have found that the sense of ..... is the most well developed at birth.
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trivial issues such as hair, clothing, and taste in music
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Most parent/teen conflicts are over ......
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gender schema theory
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Jenna's mother speaks in a soft, gentle voice and her father speaks very loudly. Jenna notices that many of her female teachers speak in a softer voice as well. Jenna therefore believes that all females speak in soft voices and does so for the rest of her life. She is now teaching her daughter to do the same. This demonstrate .........
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first 3 months
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The most likely time for a miscarriage is in the....
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longitudinal
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In a ...... design, one group of people is followed and assessed at different times as the group ages.
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cohort effect
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The cognitive and social changes students go through because they are born and grow up in an age of smartphones would be referred to as a(n) ... .....
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Each of her parents must have one recessive gene for blond hair.
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Brandy has naturally blond hair. Based on this information, what do we know about Brandy's parents?
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cystic fibrosis
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Which of the following is a disorder resulting from recessive inheritance? -Turner's syndrome -Klinefelter's syndrome -cystic fibrosis -Down syndrome
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Turner's syndrome
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Which disorder is characterized by having only one X chromosome in the 23rd pairing?
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They are conjoined twins.
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Which term best describes Abby and Brittany Hensel?
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It provides nourishment to the developing baby.
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What is the function of the placenta?
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embryonic
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The second week through the eighth week of pregnancy is commonly referred to as the ... stage.
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alcohol
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Which teratogen can result in stunted growth, facial deformities, and brain damage?
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in the first three months
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When do most miscarriages occur?
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preferential looking
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One way researchers study newborn development involves measuring how long infants continue to focus upon a nonchanging stimulus. This technique is referred to as...
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concrete operations
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In which of Piaget's stages is a child who has just developed the ability to conserve?
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scaffolding
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Vygotsky define ..... as the process of helping less as the learner improves at a given task.
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cooing
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The first in a child's language development is .....
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ambivalent
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What kind of attachment, according to Ainsworth, is shown by a baby who clings to his or her mother, gets upset when the mother leaves, and demands to be picked up but at the same time kicks and pushes her away?
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physical contact
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Studies by Harry Harlow showed that the most important element to developing an attachment is ... ....
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autonomy vs shame and doubt
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According to Erikson, which stages results in a sense of independence because of one's ability to control one's own actions?
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gender identity
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The development of a person's sense of being male or female is called....
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exposure to playmates of a particular gender
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Which of the following is not a biological influence on gender?
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collectivistic; individualistic
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In ..... cultures, gender roles are seen as more traditional, whereas in .... cultures they may be more nontraditional, especially for women.
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social learning
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Young Thomas watches his father hold the door open while his mother walks in. Subsequently, Thomas tries to hold the door for his mother as well. What theory best explains this behavior.
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androgyny
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Marcus's personality reflects the characteristics of both males and females, and this combination allows him to be more flexible in everyday behavior and his career choices. The term that describes this combination of male and female personality attributes is:
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a secondary sex characteristic
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Changes in the body of young boys such as the appearance and growth of body hair is considered
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a personal fable
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"It can't happen to me. I'm special" is a common component of adolescent ego-centric thinking and characteristic of ....
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postconventional
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According to Kohlberg, about one fifth of the adult population is at the .... level of morality.
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find a consistent sense of self
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According to Erikson, the task of the adolescent is to .....
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his taste in clothes
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If Colin is going to argue and disagree with his parents, which of the following topics will he typically be arguing over? -political beliefs -religious beliefs -social values - his taste in clothes
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heart disease
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What is the most frequent cause of death in middle age?
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finding a mate
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According to Erikson, the primary task of early adulthood is ....
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authoritarian
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According to Baumrind, which type of parent would most likely say, "Because I said so" or "It's my way or the highway!"
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to develop a sense of ego integrity
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As William celebrates his 70th birthday, he finds that he is happy with how things have turned out with his life. According to Erikson, William's life review will cause him....
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telomeres
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The structures on the ends of chromosomes that shorten each time a cell reproduces are called....
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cellular clock theory
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Which theory of aging is compared to the limited number of repairs you can have before your car's warranty runs out?
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denial
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What stage might terminally ill patients be in if they refuse to write a last will and testament because they believe that in doing so, they are admitting they will die?
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cohort effect
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The thinking and attitudes of many who survived the Depression of the 1930s changed them for the rest of their lives. This would be an example of a ....
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recessive
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If a person has one gene for blue eyes but actually has brown eyes, blue eyes must be a .... trait.
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Klinefelter's
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In .... syndrome, the 23rd pair of chromosomes consists of an XXY pairing, resulting in reduced masculine characteristics and excessive height.
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one egg is fertilized by one sperm and the splits
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Which of the following represents the fertilization process for monozygotic twins? - One egg is fertilized by two different sperm. - One egg splits and is then fertilized by two different sperm. -One egg is fertilized by one sperm and then splits. - Two eggs are fertilized by the same sperm.
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stem cells
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What part of an infant's body is said to stay in an immature state until needed to produce more cells?
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between 22 and 26 weeks
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Based on today's science and medicine, when does the age of viability begin?
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preferential looking
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Dr. Kahn measures how long baby Lydia looks at a particular stimulus. The technique is known as...
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2 months
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At what age can the typical roll over?
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Unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared out to make way for new cells.
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Studies of the infant brain show signs of what scientists call synaptic pruning. What occurs during this process?
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concrete operations
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In which of Piaget's stages does the child become capable of understanding conservation?
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holophrase
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Monique says "milk" when she wants her milk from the kitchen counter. Subsequently, she says "milk" after she has had a drink. Using a single phrase to mean different things is an example of...
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secure
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In the Strange Situation, ..... babies would cry when their mothers left the room but were happy upon her return.
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gender
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The expectation of one's culture, the development of one's personality, and sense of identity are all affected by one's ...., which refers to the psychological aspects of being male or female.
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Such behavior may be due to incomplete development of the prefrontal cortex.
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What is new explanation as to why teenagers and young adults may engage in risky and dangerous behavior?
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the imaginary audience
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Samantha enters a classroom where two students are talking. When they stop their discussion, Samantha is certain they must have been talking about her. Such a belief is an example of ....
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changes in memory begin to occur
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What cognitive changes occurring during middle adulthood are the most noticeable?
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authoritative
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Independence and self-reliance in the teenage years is the most likely due to ... parenting.
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integrity vs. despair
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The crisis of late adulthood, according to Erikson, is...
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free radial theory
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Which theory of aging states that unstable oxygen molecules tend to steal electrons as they bounce around, thus causing damage to surrounding cells?
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Anger is a normal reaction to death and not a sign of mental illness.
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Kip is worried that he is losing his mind because he finds himself angry at a friend who died in an automobile accident. Based on Kubler-Ross's research, what might you tell him?
