ch.2 – Flashcard
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1. Which of the following statements about theories is true? A. Theories change to incorporate new findings. B. Theories are based on certain assumptions. C. Theories and research are interwoven. D. All of these
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all of these
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2. In the study of human development, a theory is a set of A. logically related statements seeking to describe, explain, and predict development. B. facts derived from research. C. research results that can prove behaviors. D. opinions of a well-known authority in a field.
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logically related statements seeking to describe, explain, and predict development
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-A good theory develops __________, which can then be tested by research. -Tentative explanations or predictions that can be scientifically tested are called -"If children learn aggression from models, then children who watch violent television shows should be more aggressive than children who watch nonviolent shows." This is an example of a A. data B. hypotheses C. findings D. facts
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hypothesis
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Which early philosopher described children as a tabula rasa on which society writes? A. John Locke B. Jean Piaget C. Jean Jacques Rosseau D. Erik Erikson
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John Locke
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If Bill's behavior is viewed as passive and reactive, he would be perceived as demonstrating the __________ model of behavior. A. naturalistic B. mechanistic C. organismic D. maturationistic
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mechanistic
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-If Troy's behavior is viewed as active and self-determining, he would be perceived as demonstrating the __________ model of behavior. - Most of the early pioneers in psychology, such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget, favored the __________ perspective on human development, which views development as occurring in specific stages. A. naturalistic B. mechanistic C. organismic D. maturationistic
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organismic
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Organismic theorists emphasize __________ change, while mechanistic theorists emphasize __________ change. A. quantitative; qualitative B. behavioral; developmental C. qualitative; quantitative D. mechanistic; organismic
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qualitative and quantitative
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The quantitative changes, such as documenting the number of words added to a child's vocabulary, support which theory? A. Mechanistic B. Developmental C. Qualitative D. Organismic
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Mechanistic
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Psychoanalytic theory was developed by A. Sigmund Freud. B. Ivan Pavlov. C. Albert Bandura. D. Erik Erikson
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sigmund Freud
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Stacy's mother believes that most of Stacy's acting out lately has been caused by unconscious forces within her that motivate her behavior. Stacy's mother follows the ______ perspective. A. humanistic. B. ethological. C. psychoanalytic. D. learning
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psychoanalytic
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14. A therapeutic approach aimed at giving patients insight into their unconscious conflicts is called A. repression analysis. B. psychoanalysis. C. psychosexual analysis. D. psychoconsciousness
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psychoanalysis
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Freud's theory on human development states that people develop in an unvarying sequence of maturationally determined stages of __________ development. A. psychosocial B. psychoanalytic C. psychoconscious D. psychosexual
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psychosexual
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The proper order of Freud's psychosexual stages of development is A. anal, phallic, oral, latency, genital. B. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital. C. anal, oral, genital, latency, phallic. D. oral, latency, genital, anal, phallic
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oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
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According to psychosexual theory, 4-year-old Austin would be in which stage? A. Oral B. Anal C. Phallic D. Latency
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phallic
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As an adult, Mary spends considerable time each day cleaning her apartment, arranging her socks in a drawer until they are just right, and making schedules on a calendar. According to Freud, Mary is probably fixated in the __________ stage. A. oral B. anal C. genital D. phallic
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anal
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According to Freud, during early childhood boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers. Freud called this development ______________. A. the Electra complex B. the unconscious complex C. the Oedipus complex D. regressing
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the Oedipus complex
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The stage of psychosexual development that occurs during middle childhood and is characterized by relative calm is called the __________ stage. A. oral B. childhood C. latency D. anal
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latency
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Which of the following is NOT part of the personality as proposed by Freud? A. Superego B. Libido C. Id D. Ego
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libido
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According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the "pleasure principle," seeking the immediate gratification of desires, is the A. id. B. ego. C. superego. D. ego ideal
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ID
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According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the "reality principle," realistically finding ways to obtain gratification, is the A. id. B. ego. C. superego. D. conscience
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Ego
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- Christa, a rather demonstrative 7-year-old, hits her brother for laughing at her, and feels guilty about it afterward. According to Freud, Christa's guilty feelings reflect the operation of the - Which one of the following personality entities would be most similar to what is called "conscience"? A. id. B. ego. C. superego. D. defense mechanism
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superego
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One of the criticisms of Freud's work is that he _____________________. A. did not make us aware of the importance of unconscious thoughts B. focused too little on childhood feelings and experiences in motivation C. did not scientifically test concepts of id and superego D. used too large a subject pool
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did not scientifically test concepts of ID and superego
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Unlike Freud's theory, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development A. sees society as a positive force. B. focuses on biological instincts. C. covers infancy and childhood but not adulthood. D. has much in common with behaviorism
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sees society as a positive force
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According to Erikson, the resolution of the crisis at each stage of psychosocial development must include a _______ between positive and negative traits. A. balance B. skewing toward the positive C. skewing toward the negative D. synthesis
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balance
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Each of Erikson's stages involved a major developmental issue that is particularly important at that time. Erikson referred to these issues as __________ in personality. A. traumas B. crises C. stages D. phases
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crises
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A long-lasting change in behavior as a result of experience or adaptation to its environment is called A. modification. B. cognition. C. learning. D. behaviorism
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learning
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Two important learning theories are____________ and_______________. A. behaviorism; cognitive therapy B. social learning theory; operant conditioning C. social learning theory; psychoanalytic theory D. psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
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social learning theory; operant conditioning
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Learning theorists are most concerned with A. measurable, observable behaviors. B. unconscious determination of behaviors. C. development of intelligence. D. personality conflicts between parents and children
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measurable, observable behaviors
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According to the _________ perspective, people's actions are reactions to aspects of their environment that they find pleasing, painful, or threatening. A. organismic B. behaviorism C. psychoanalytic D. humanistic
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behaviorism
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The ________ perspective emphasizes the influence of the environment rather than thought processes or unconscious fantasies. A. psychoanalytic B. learning C. organismic D. humanistic
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learning
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Behaviorists maintain that human behavior is determined by A. defense mechanisms. B. self-actualization. C. unconscious conflicts. D. conditioning
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conditioning
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A child learns to whine to get items at the store because when she whines, her parents get frustrated and give her the desired items. She is basically being rewarded for her whining even though her parents do not seem to realize this and are frustrated because the whining is increasing. This is an example of ______ conditioning. A. operant conditioning B. classical conditioning C. behavior conditioning D. unconscious conditioning
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operant conditioning
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In classical conditioning, an association is learned between A. an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus. B. an operant response and a reinforcer. C. a conditioned stimulus and an operant response. D. an internal stimulus and an external stimulus
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an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus
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Which of the following researchers worked with "Little Albert" in one of the earliest and most famous examples of classical conditioning in human development? A. John B. Watson B. Ivan Pavlov C. B. F. Skinner D. Edward Thorndike
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John B. Watson
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The principles of classical conditioning were developed by A. Sigmund Freud B. Ivan Pavlov. C. B. F. Skinner. D. Edward Thorndike
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Ivan Pavlov
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A girl receives an injection and cries. Each time she receives an injection again, the same nurse gives it. Her mother notices that the child now cries when she sees this nurse even if no injection is given. This is an example of A. classical conditioning. B. operant conditioning. C. fixation. D. negative reinforcement
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classical conditioning
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. The psychologist who formulated the principles of operant conditioning was A. John B. Watson. B. Sidney Pressey. C. B. F. Skinner. D. Ivan Pavlov
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B.F. skinner
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__________ is the principle that an organism will repeat behaviors when these behaviors are reinforced. A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Pleasure principle D. Reality principle
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operant conditioning
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Any consequence of a behavior that INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior being repeated is called A. punishment. B. reinforcement. C. an aversive event. D. classical conditioning
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reinforcement
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Punishment __________ a behavior by bringing on a(n)__________event. A. increases; aversive or unpleasant B. suppresses; aversive or unpleasant C. suppresses; positive or pleasant D. increases; negative or unpleasant
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suppresses; aversive or unpleasant
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Reinforcement is most effective when it is __________ after the behavior it is designed to reinforce. A. delayed B. immediately C. constant D. aversive
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immediately
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. Ann's mother has stopped reinforcing Ann to make her bed. Ann's bed-making behavior is likely to be ___________. A. increased B decreased C. punished D. learned permanently
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decreased
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Edwin is learning to ride his bike. Each time that he rides onto the gravel driveway, he loses control of the bike and falls. Eventually Edwin will no longer ride in the driveway. This example represents the learning process of A. negative reinforcement. B. intermittent reinforcement. C. punishment. D. conditioning
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punishment
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The use of operant conditioning to modify or shape human behavior is called A. classical conditioning. B. punishment. C. behavior modification. D. reinforcement
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behavior modification
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The principles of social learning theory were developed by A. B. F. Skinner. B. Carl Rogers. C. John B. Watson. D. Albert Bandura
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Albert Bandura
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According to social learning theory, the most important element in how children learn a language, deal with aggression, develop a sense of morality, and learn gender-appropriate behavior is A. classical conditioning. B. observation and imitation. C. punishment of inappropriate behavior. D. shaping of appropriate behavior
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observation and imitation
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The process of modeling, or observing and imitating others, is referred to as A. classical conditioning. B. observational learning. C. efficacious learning D. psychoanalytical learning
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observational learning
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develops as children gradually learn to master challenges and achieve goals. A. Social cognitive theory B. Applied behavioral analysis C. Social learning theory D. Self-efficacy
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self-efficacy
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The perspective on human behavior that is concerned with thought processes and the behavior that reflects those processes is called the __________ perspective. A.cognitive B. thinking C. behavioral D. intellectual
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cognitive
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is the researcher best known for his theory of cognitive development. A. Abraham Maslow B. Sigmund Freud C. Erik Erikson D. Jean Piaget
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Jean Piaget
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The two major points of Jean Piaget's cognitive perspective are that people are active in their environment and that behavior develops ______. A. in specific stages regardless of culture. B. randomly at any developmental stage C. in a specific order that may vary based upon cultural variables. D. randomly based upon the child's environment
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in specific stages regardless of culture
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Which of the following is NOT one of the cognitive stages through which a child progresses, as theorized by Jean Piaget? A. Post-conceptual B. Sensorimotor C. Preoperational D. Concrete operations
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post-conceptual
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Piaget's use of questions and flexible exploration of a child's responses is known as the __________ method. A. Socratic B. clinical C. field observation D. interview
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clinical
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A structure of organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation is that person's A. scheme. B. situation. C. adaptation. D. assimilation
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scheme
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Which of the following is NOT one of the interrelated principles developed by Piaget to explain the gradual development of a child's mental processes? A. organization B. adaptation C. equilibration D. unconscious processing
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unconscious processing
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-Piaget's term for the process of TAKING IN formation and incorporating it into existing ways of thinking is -When a child first sucks on a sippy cup the same way the child sucked from a bottle, the child is trying to learn to drink from the cup using the process of A. schematization. B. shaping. C. accommodation. D. assimilation
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assimilation
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From Jean Piaget's perspective, a child who alters her behavior to more effectively deal with a new situation is exhibiting A. accommodation. B. primary process thinking. C. assimilation. D. generalization
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accommodation
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According to Jean Piaget, what is the primary goal or need that leads children to change their ways of thinking to adapt to new experiences? A. Satisfaction of id impulses B. Equilibrium C. Stable sense of identity D. Approval from parents
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Equilibrium
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It is important for parents and teachers to understand how children think so they can more effectively _________ them. A. discipline B. teach C. organize D. manage
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teach
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Jean Piaget's formal operations stage does not account for the capacity to A. develop practical problem-solving skills. B. deal with ambiguous situations. C. deal with competing truths. D. All of these
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deal with ambiguous situations
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Which of the following is NOT a criticism of Piaget's theory of development? A. It pays little attention to emotional development. B. It pays little attention to the influence of education on intellectual development. C. It overestimates the cognitive abilities of young children. D. It does not say much about individual differences in ability
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it overestimates the cognitive abilities of young children
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Psychologist Lev Vygotsky saw cognitive growth as a collaborative process in which children learn through social A. cognition. B. status. C. learning. D. interaction
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interaction
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A teacher is helping to direct and organize Jay's learning with blocks to help him master and internalize his skills. This reflects Vygotsky's notion of A. structured application. B. zone of proximal development. C. distal learning. D. zone of distal development
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zone of proximal devlopment
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A major distinction between Piaget's developmental theory and the information-processing approach is that A. Piaget sees development as continuous, whereas the information-processing approach views development as occurring in distinct stages. B. Piaget sees development as an active process, whereas the information-processing view sees the organism as passive. C. Piaget focused on perception, whereas the information-processing approach focuses on thinking and memory. D. Piaget sees development as occurring in stages, whereas the information-processing approach sees development as continuous.
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Piaget sees development as occurring in stages, were as the information-processing approach sees development as continuous
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The information-processing approach to explaining cognitive development compares the brain to a __________; sensory impressions go in and behavior comes out. A. calculator B. computer C. modem D. telephone
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computer
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Dr. Willard is studying the way in which infant siblings interact with one another in the home. According to the ecological approach, Dr. Willard is studying the children in their A. microsystem. B. mesosystem. C. exosystem. D. macrosystem.
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microsystem
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The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe has significantly altered most government institutions there. According to the ecological approach, the government changes are changes in people's A. microsystem. B. mesosystem. C. endosystem. D. macrosystem
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macro system
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Sociocultural theory, developed by __________, stresses children's active involvement with their environment as the process by which they acquire cognitive skills. A. Urie Bronfenbrenner B. Jean Piaget C. Lev Vygotsky D. Margaret Mead
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Lev Vygotsky
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The approach that views human development as the outcome of a dynamic process of bidirectional interaction between person and environment is a(n) A. developmental system. B. interpersonal system. C. cognitive system. D. None of these
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devlopmental system
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Which theory of human development is universally accepted as the theory that best explains all facets of development? A. Psychoanalytic B. Behavioristic C. Sociocultural D. No one theory is able to do this.
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none of the above
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When conducting research, scientists will typically measure a __________ and generalize the results to a _____________. A. cohort; sample B. nonnormative group; normative group C. population; sample D. sample; population
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sample; population
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One of the most reliable sampling methods is the use of __________, which increases the likelihood that the sample is representative of the population. A. representative selection B. random assignment C. random selection D. random sample
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Random selection
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Which of the following is NOT an example of a self-report technique? A. Questionnaire B. Diary or log C. Interview D. Observation
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observation
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A problem associated with the interview method is that A. a single interview may give only a partial picture. B. people are not always accurate or honest in answering questions. C. interview reports may need to be confirmed by more objective research. D. All of these
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all of these
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One commonly used type of written interview is a A. diary. B. case study. C. questionnaire. D. journal
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questionnaire
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According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, the first stage of development, which occurs during infancy, is A. Trust versus mistrust. B. Autonomy versus state of doubt. C. initiative versus guilt. D. industry versus inferiority
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trust vs. mistrust
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According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, a teenage girl would be facing the crisis of A. intimacy versus isolation. B. integrity versus despair. C. industry versus inferiority. D. identity versus identity confusion
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identity vs. identity confusion
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example of Erikson's stage of initiative versus guilt would be A. an infant learning that she can depend on being fed. B. a 3-year-old trying to fill a cup with water and cheerfully wiping up the water when it spills. C. a 10-year-old learning to read fluently. D. a teenager conforming to peer pressure
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A 3 year old trying to fill a cup with water and cheerfully wiping up the water when it spills
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Freud's research stressed the importance of A. conscious behavior. B. the role of heredity in parenting. C. ways in which early relationships affect later ones. D. the lack of use of recalling childhood experiences
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ways in which early relationships affect later ones
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. In contrast with Freud, Erikson placed more emphasis on A. physical development. B. intellectual development. C. the role of parents. D. social and cultural influences
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social and cultural influences
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Professor Powers studies how frequent moves from one town to another can influence children's emotional development over time. According to the ecological approach, Professor Powers is studying the __________ of children. A. exosystem B. chronosystem C. macrosystem D. minisystem
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chronosystem
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Dr. Charles is interested in how certain behaviors such as smiling helps to bond parents and ensure a child's survival. Dr. Charles is interested in the ______ perspective. A. psychoanalytical B. evolutional C. cognitive D. learning
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evolutional
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Daniel is doing research that involves gathering detailed descriptions from people about their beliefs. Daniel is doing which kind of research? A. Qualitative B. Quantitative C. Theoretical D. Hypothetical
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Qualitative
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When research deals with objectively measurable data, this is a description of A. qualitative research. B. quantitative research. C. theories. D. hypotheses
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quantitative research
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When a researcher decides to travel with the circus to observe the performers, without altering the environment they live and work in, the research is A. a laboratory observation. B. a naturalistic observation. C. quantitative research. D. a natural experiment
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A naturalistic observation
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The primary difference between a naturalistic observation and a laboratory observation is the degree of A. manipulation. B. control. C. involvement. D. There is no difference
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control
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A disadvantage of the use of naturalistic observation techniques is that they A. can be used to study only infancy. B. omit emotional development. C. record only cognitive development. D. are prone to observer bias.
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Are prone to be observer bias
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Which of the following is NOT a problem associated with observational studies? A. They cannot determine cause and effect relationships. B. The subjects may behave differently when they know they are being observed. C. It is not possible to gain information regarding relationships between variables. D. Laboratory studies may not generalize to real life
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it is not possible to gain information regarding relationships between variables
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When test results are reasonably consistent from one time to another they are said to be A. valid. B. reliable. C. operational. D. standardized
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reliable
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A plan for conducting a scientific investigation is a A. research design. B. hypothetical study. C. scientific project. D. research grant
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A research design
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-An in-depth study of an individual is a(n) -In developing his psychoanalytic theory, Freud studied several individuals in great detail for an extended period of time. This technique is referred to as the __________ approach A. naturalistic observation. B. case study. C. interview. D. experiment
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case study
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An in-depth case study of a culture or subculture is an __________ study. A. enculturation B. ethnographic C. acculturation D. ethnic
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ethnographic
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. A researcher who wants to find out if a statistical relationship exists between variables should use a(n) A. questionnaire. B. correlation. C. experiment. D. case study
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correlation
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researcher studies the relationship between family income and achievement motivation. A correlation of +1.20 is found. From this, the researcher can conclude that A. other variables must be negatively correlated with family income. B. high income causes high achievement motivation. C. increases in income predict higher achievement motivation. D. an error was made in calculating the correlation
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an error was made in calculating the correlation
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Dr. Liefeld has studied the relationship between the amount of time children spend playing video games and their academic performance in school. She finds that as time spent playing video games increases, grades in school decrease. This finding represents a A. a positive correlation. B. a negative correlation. C. a variable interaction. D. a case study approach.
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a negative correlation
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Suppose you asked the following two questions of a group of 100 children: "How much time do your parents spend reading to you each day?" and "What are your grades in school?" You find that children whose parents read to them for more than one hour each day have better grades than children whose parents read to them for only a few minutes each day. What could you conclude from this pattern of data? A. Reading by parents causes children to do better in school. B. Parental reading time and grades are positively correlated. C. Parental reading time and grades are uncorrelated. D. Better students cause their parents to spend more time reading to
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Parental reading time and grades are positively correlated
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A strong correlation between variables does not necessarily mean that one variable __________ the other. A. determines B. causes C. results from D. All of these
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all of these
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-The subjects who receive the treatment or independent variable in an experimental study are called the -The word "manipulation" is most strongly associated with the __________ technique A. experimental group. B. control group. C. dependent group. D. independent group
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experimental group
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A controlled procedure in which the experimenter manipulates variables to learn how one affects another is a(n) A. manipulation. B. experiment. C. observation D. correlation
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experiment
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The subjects who do NOT receive the treatment or independent variable in an experimental study are called the A. experimental group. B. control group. C. dependent group. D. independent group
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control group
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The treatment in an experiment is called the A. experimental group. B. control group. C. independent variable. D. dependent variable
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independent variable
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In an experiment, Professor Daley manipulates the __________ variable and then looks for an effect of that manipulation by measuring the ___________variable. A. dependent; independent B. control; experimental C. experimental; control D. independent; dependent
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independent; dependent
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In an experiment, one group of children is given a drink each day with a special vitamin supplement. A second group of children is given the same drink but without the vitamin. Later, all children are given an IQ test to see if the vitamin had an effect on intelligence. In this experiment, the children's scores on the IQ test would be the A. independent variable. B. cross-sequential variable. C. dependent variable. D. control variable
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dependent variable
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In a study of the effects of behavior modeling, one group of children observes role models who share toys; another group observes role models whose behavior is neutral (neither initiating sharing nor refusing to share). What is the independent variable? A. Observing role models who share or don't share B. Observing negative role models C. The group with neutral role models D. The group with sharing role models
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observing role models who share or don't share
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A group of children is given special training on how to handle their anger. A second group is treated the same as the first group except for the fact that these subjects do not receive the special training. The group given the training is the __________ group and the group given no training is the __________group. A. experimental; control B. control; experimental C. dependent; independent D. independent; dependent
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experimental; group
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The chief advantage of experimental methods is that they are A. more flexible than other methods. B. more generalized than other methods. C. more descriptive of real-life events. D. better able to determine cause and effect.
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better able to determine cause and effect
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Experimenters can ensure results that are representative of a given population through A. random selection. B. random assignment. C. controlling for all relevant variables. D. convenience sampling
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random assignment
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-A researcher who studies twins accidentally separated at birth and reared in different environments is using a -Dr. Gearhart is hopeful that her research results will be verified by others through replication. If she wishes her work to be replicated most accurately, what research technique should she use A. laboratory experiment. B. field experiment. C. natural experiment. D. correlation experiment
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natural experiment
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The greatest difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment is the degree of A. control. B. manipulation. C. random assignment. D. correlation
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control
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Which of the following is a shortcoming of the laboratory experimental approach to understanding human development? A. It is often difficult to randomly assign subjects to different treatment conditions. B. Experiments rarely inform us about cause-and-effect relationships. C. This technique does not work well for the study of aggression. D. The results may not be applicable outside the experimental situation
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the results ay not be applicable outside the experimental situation
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Dr. Ellie Cheetham follows the same group of children over a 10-year period, measuring their performance twice a year. This is which method of data collection? A. Cross-sectional B. Longitudinal C. Sequential D. Clinical
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longitudinal
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-Professor Bingham measures the cognitive skills of 100 30-year-olds and compares them with 100 50-year-olds. This is an example of which method? -Suppose your psychology professor asks you to do a study examining how emotional reactions change in children between the ages of 3 and 12 years. Given that the study needs to be completed in less then two weeks, which type of data collection method should you employ A. Cross-sectional B. Longitudinal C. Sequential D. Clinical
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Cross-sectional
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-Which type of study is time-consuming, expensive, and has problems associated with attrition? -Which studies have the greatest difficulty with the loss of subjects? A. Longitudinal B. Cross-sectional C. Interview D. Clinical
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longitudinal
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. Cohort differences are a problem for which kind of studies? A. Time-sampling B. Cross-sectional C. Sequential D. Longitudinal
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cross-sectional
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-Which of the following methods was designed to deal with the disadvantages of both the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs? -Professor Watt studies the behavior of children whose parents divorced six months before the children started school and children whose parents divorced two years before the children started school. Both groups of children are then followed and measured over the course of several years. This is which kind of design? A. Life-span sampling B. Clinical C. Sequential study D. Behavior-sampling
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sequential study
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Objections to Watson and Rayner's study of __________ stimulated the American Psychological Association to establish more stringent ethical guidelines for research studies that involved human subjects. A. Fat Albert B. Little Albert C. Prince Albert D. Baby Albert
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little Albert
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In Guidepost 4, the resolution of ethical problems in research is discussed. Which of the following is an ethical principle? A. Beneficence B. Justice C. Respect D. All of these
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all of these
