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the two conditions that appear critical for group formation

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a. Reciprocity b. Transitivity

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Reciprocity

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the act, process or situation in which one person has received a benefit from another and in return chooses to provide an equivalent benefit back

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example of Reciprocity

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Inviting someone to a party

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Transitivity

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the quality of a union across components that the union transfers among components

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example of Transitivity

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Political endorsements

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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the tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members

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a woman who lives in a big city might believe that everyone from the country or a small town is stupid

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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medial prefrontal cortex is involved in

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group membership

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Social Facilitation

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the idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance

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basics of Zajonc's Model

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the mere presence of others leads to increased arousal. The arousal favors the dominant response is easy or well learned, performance is enhanced. If the required response is novel or not well learned, performance suffers.

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Important for group decision making

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risky-shift effect, group polarization, and groupthink

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risky-shift effect

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Groups often make riskier decisions than individuals.

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group polarization

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the process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time

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groupthink (Extreme form of group polarization)

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the tendency of groups to make bad decisions when the group is under pressure, facing external threats, and is biased.

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social loafing

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the tendency for people to not work as hard in a group than when working alone

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deindividuation

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a state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; This phenomenon may occur when people are part of a group.

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Self-awareness Aroused, anonymity, diffused responsibility

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Examples of deindividuation

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basics of Zimbardo and Haney's Stanford Prison Experiment

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To investigate how readily people would conform to the roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life.

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conformity

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the altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations.

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Normative influence:

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the tendency for people to conform in order to fit in with the group

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Informational influence:

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the tendency for people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the group

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Social norms:

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expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

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reasons why we conform

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normative and informational influence; social norms

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Solomon Asch's conformity study: basic methods

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Hypothesis - Conformity would not take place if there were objective perceptions Set up: Participants told they were in a study about visual judgments. A participant joined a group of 5 other "participants." The other 5 were confederates, secretly a member of the research team. Each participant was asked to look at the reference or standard line and then say out loud, one by one, which of the 3 comparisons lines matched it

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Solomon Asch's conformity study: results

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75% of participants gave wrong answer at least once On 12 out of 18 trials - the confederates deliberately gave the wrong answer

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Solomon Asch's conformity study: what they informed us about conformity

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Size of the Group (4+) Difficulty of Task Status of Majority Group Social Support Answer in Private

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Size of the Group (4+)

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Conformity tends to increase as the size of the group increases. Because conformity does not seem to increase in groups larger than four, this is considered the optimal group size.

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Status of Majority Group

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The higher the status of the group the higher the level of conformity

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Social Support

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individuals conform because they are concerned about what other people think of them

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Answer in Private

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conformity decreases when there is less groups pressure and normative influence is not as powerful, as there is no fear of rejection from the group

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Difficulty of Task

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The more difficult the task the greater the conformity.

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five factors that affect the rate of conformity

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Group size Difficultly of Task Status of Majority Group Social Support/ Lack of Unanimity Answers in Private

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compliance

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the tendency to agree to do things requested by others

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three basic strategies to facilitate compliance

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Foot-in-the-door effect Door in the face Low-balling strategy

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Foot-in-the-door effect:

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: the idea that if people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable request

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Door in the face

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people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request.

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Low-balling strategy

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a salesperson offers a product for a very low price. Once the customer agrees, the salesperson may claim that the manager did not approve the price or that there will be additional charges.

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Milgram's obedience study:methods

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*Participants told that the experiment was investigating the effect of shock on learning *Instructed to shock another person when an error was made *Shocks supposed to be given in ascending sequence

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Milgram's obedience study: results

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All participants gave some shock 2/3 gave all shocks despite cries of pain

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Milgram's obedience study: conclusions

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Obedience is a function of situation, not personality Relationship to authority affects obedience

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the factors that decreased obedience

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When experimenter leaves room Victim right there in room Two experimenters issuing conflicting demands Non-professional Peers in room together Low-prestige

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aggression

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any behavior that involves the intention to harm another

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who engages in physical aggression

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young children but relatively rare in adults.

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who engages in emotional/spoken acts of aggression

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Adults

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the MAO-A gene, testosterone and the prefrontal cortex plays a role in

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in aggression

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What environmental contaminant shown to play a causal role in violent/aggressive criminal acts

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lead

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prosocial behavior

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: actions that tend to benefit others, such as doing favors or helping

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prosocial behavior:evolutionary benefits

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Others will help you when you need it. they will be more willing to help others

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altruism

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providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so

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altruism: how it is explained by evolutionary theorists

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helping of others with shared genes

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Kitty Genovese

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was murdered while walking home from work in New York City. Witnesses to the crime reportedly did nothing to help.

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attitudes

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people's evaluations of objects, of events, or of ideas

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Pavlovian/Classical conditioning and socialization

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things that can affect our attitudes

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cognitive dissonance

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an uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior

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when people smoke even though they know that smoking might kill them.

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examples of cognitive dissonance

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changing their attitudes or behavior; they sometimes also rationalize or trivialize the discrepancies

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the various ways in which people attempt to reduce cognitive dissonance

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how do people justify effort to reduce dissonance

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To resolve the dissonance they inflate the importance of the group and their commitment to it.

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attributions

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people's explanations for why events or actions occur

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personal attributions

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explanations of people's behavior that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts

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situational attributions

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explanations of people's behavior that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions

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fundamental attribution error

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in explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors

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the researchers who came up with the fundamental attribution error are

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making a fundamental attribution error in their hypothesis

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stereotypes

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cognitive schemas that help us organize information about people on the basis of their membership in certain groups

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why stereotypes are useful

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Allow for easy, fast processing of social information

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an example of the psychological reasoning error of seeing relationships that do not exist

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Illusory correlations:

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When we encounter someone who does not fit a stereotype, we put that person in a special category rather than alter the stereotype.

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Subtyping

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why stereotypes present problems

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Stereotypes may be positive, neutral, or negative. Alters perception

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Prejudice

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negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype

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discrimination

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the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice

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Proximity

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means how often people come into contact with each other because they are physically nearby.

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familiarity

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people like familiar things more than unfamiliar ones

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matching principle

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the most successful romantic couples also tend to be the most physically similar

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physical attractiveness

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Some standards of beauty, such as preferences for particular body types, appear to change over time and across cultures Most people find symmetrical faces more attractive than asymmetrical ones

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passionate love

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a state of intense longing and sexual desire

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companionate love

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a strong commitment to care for and support a partner

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personality

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a person's characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors

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personality trait

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a pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior that is relatively consistent over time and across situations

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like all other complex behavioral phenomena, personality has both _________ and __________ components

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genetic and environmental components

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temperaments

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biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways

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three examples of temperaments

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Activity level Emotionality Sociability

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Activity level

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overall amount of energy and behavior a person exhibits

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Emotionality

answer

intensity of emotional reactions

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Sociability

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general tendency to affiliate with others

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from an evolutionary standpoint, personality is ___________, because it represents your ________________

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adaptive long-term patterns of behavior

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Sigmund Freud

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Crazy dude who developed many ideas about personality by observing his patients

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Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory

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the Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

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Freud had the right idea that

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even events occurring very early in your childhood can shape your behavior/personality as you age

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the three interacting structures Freud posited to comprise the personality

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the id, the superego, and ego

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the id

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in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle

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the superego

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in psychodynamic theory, the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct

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ego

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in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego

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Defense mechanisms:

answer

unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from anxiety

question

the 3 types of mechanisms

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Denial repression projection

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Denial

answer

Refusing to acknowledge source of anxiety

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repression

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Excluding source of anxiety from awareness

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projection

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Attributing unacceptable qualities of the self to someone else

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Freud's psychosexual stages

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Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

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Oral

answer

birth to 18 months; infants seek pleasure through the mouth

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anal

answer

2-3 years; learning to control the bowels leads to a focus on the anus

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phallic

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3-5 years; focus is on the genitals

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latency

answer

Children suppress libidinal urges

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genital

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adolescence/adulthood; libidinal urges focused on the capacities to reproduce and to contribute to society

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some people may become __________ at a stage

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"fixated"

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psychologists have abandoned psychodynamic theories because they are

answer

infalsifiable and nearly impossible to test. nonscientific

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Rotter's internal of control

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these people believe they bring about their own rewards

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external locus of control

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these people believe rewards—and therefore their personal fate—result from forces beyond their control.

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what do humanistic approaches to personality entail

answer

approaches to studying personality that emphasize how people seek to fulfill their potential through greater self-understanding

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a. Carl Rogers

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centered approach emphasized the importance of people's subjective understandings of their lives

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the five-factor theory of personality

answer

the idea that personality can be described using five factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

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Gray's behavioral activation(BAS): linked to extraversion

answer

The brain system involved in the pursuit of incentives or rewards; this is the "go" system.

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Gray's inhibition systems(BIS): linked to neuroticism

answer

The brain system that is sensitive to punishment and therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain; this is the "stop" system

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Situationism

answer

the theory that behavior is determined more by situations than by personality traits

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Examples of situationism

answer

A person who is shy during a date but very outgoing when in the club with friends.

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what interactionists theorize determines behavior

answer

jointly by situations and underlying dispositions

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joint function of personality

answer

your collection of past experiences and current situation

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examples of age-related changes in personality

answer

independently of environmental influences; therefore, that personality change may be based in human physiology

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women and men are much more similar in _______ than commonly believed

answer

personality

question

the differences support __________, causing a ____________

answer

common stereotypes feedback-function

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idiographic approaches

answer

person-centered approaches to studying personality; focus is on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons

question

Examples of idiographic approaches

answer

how individuals define themselves.

question

nomothetic approaches

answer

study of personality that focuses on how common characteristics vary from person to person

question

examples of nomothetic approaches

answer

measures of unconscious processes, life history data, behavioral data, self-reports, and descriptions from people's friends, relatives, or both

question

projective measures of personality

answer

personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli

question

self-serving bias

answer

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

question

what sorts of people engage in self-serving bias more often than others

answer

People with high self-esteem tend to take credit for success but blame failure on outside factors.

question

Know that there are ___________ in how people view the "self"

answer

cultural differences

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