Behavior terms
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Learned vs innate behavior
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- Learned: Ability to learn is inherited but behavior develops during animals lifetime - Innate: Inheritive/ instinctive/ automatic/ consistent
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How are reflexes and instinct related?
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- Reflexes are a result of instincts
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Why do animals usually depend upon a fairly simple FAP sign stimuli?
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- FAP: Sequence of behaviors that are essentially unchangeable and usually conducted to completion once started - ?
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FAP
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Sequence of behaviors that are essentially unchangeable and usually conducted to completion once started
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Optimal foraging behavior
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- animals will maximize the amount of energy acquired per unit of feeding
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Why are many interactions between members of the same species agonistic?
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- Members of the same species compete for limited resources
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Agonisitc behavior
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- Threatening and submissive rituals - Usually no harm done - Example: competitor aggression
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What mechanisms/ actions reduce violent encounters between con specifics?
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- Surplus of resources (low competition) - Altruistic behavior
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Conspecifics
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- Members of the same species
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Cognitive map
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- A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
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According to kin selection, would an individual be more likely to exhibit altruistic behavior towards a parent, a sibling, or a first cousin?
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A parent. Using the formula rB ; C, the closer an organism is related to its parent, the more that the offspring will act in an altruistic manner
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Taxis vs kinesis
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Taxis- Nonrandom movement Kinesis- Random movement Both in response to stimuli
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Imprinting
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Learning to form social attachments at a critical period (young)
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Sensitive period
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A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.
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Maturation
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Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
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Associative learning
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Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
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Habituation
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An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
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Classical conditioning
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A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
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Operant condition
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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
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Consciousness
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our awareness of ourselves and our environment
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Agonistic
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Competition that who wins a prize, such as food or mates.
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Ritual
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a ceremonial act; a customary procedure
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Reconciliation
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Encourages biodiversity in ecology in human-centered environments
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Dominance heirarchy
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form of social ranking within a group (chicken pecking order)
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Territoriality
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Defense of a space against encroachment by other individuals.
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Monogomy
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One partner for life
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Promiscuity
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Having sex with a number of partners without commitment
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Polygamous
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More than one partner
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Polygynous
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one male mates with several females
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Polyandrous
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Refers to a social group that includes one reproductively active female, several adult males, and their offspring.
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Mutualism
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A relationship between two species in which both species benefit
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Parasitism
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A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed
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Competition
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A common demand by two or more organisms upon a limited supply of a resource; for example, food, water, light, space, mates, nesting sites. It may be intraspecific or interspecific.
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Commensalism
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A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
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Neutralism
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The relationship in which organisms occupy the same habitat but do not affect each other is known as
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Herbivory
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interaction in which one animal (the herbivore) feeds on producers (such as plants)
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Altruism
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- Behaviors that are disadvantageous to the individual acting, but confer benefits to other members of its social group. - Eventually can help someone's fitness
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Ewes will adopt and nurse a lamb shortly after they give birth to their own lamb, but will butt away and reject a lamb introduced a day or two later.
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- Imprinting
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A dog, whose early peeing were cleaned up with paper towels accompanied with harsh discipline, hides under the bed any time a paper towel is used in the household.
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- Cognition/ associative learning
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Ducklings eventually ignore a cardboard silhouette of a hawk that is repeatedly flown over them
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Habituation
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Human high school students salivate every time they hear the 3rd block bell rings and experience the stomach clench response every time they hear an alarm clock sound
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Classical conditioning
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I can easily ignore every socilization phone call that I recieve at my house
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- Learning/ habituation
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After a fight, a boyfriend buys his girlfriend flowers.
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- Learning
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Seagulls know to drop their clam shells from an optmum height in order to gain the enrgy from the clams inside
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- Learned behavior
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Sign stimulus
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External sensory cue
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Fixed action pattern (FAP)
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Invariant behavior
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Pheromones
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Chemical substances that transmit messages between species
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Cross fostering studies
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Measure the influence of social environment and experience on behavior
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Learning
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- Modification through experience a) Imprinting b) Cognition c) Spatial learning d) Associative learning e) Social learning
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Monogamous
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One partner
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Inclusive fitness
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- Total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and providing aid to relatives to increase production of their offspring
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Kin selection
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Favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives
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Competition (-/-)
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Two/more species compete for a resource that is in short supply
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Explotation (+/-)
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One species benefits by feeding upon the other species, which is harmed
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Predation
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One species, the predator, kills and eats the prey
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Paratism
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The parasite derives its nourishment from a second organism (the host) which is harmed
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Positive interactions
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Mutualism and commensalism
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Competitve exclusion
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Two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist permanently in the same place
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Resource partioning
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Differentiation of ecological niches that enables species to exist in a community
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Species diversity
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Number of different species and relative abundance
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Species richness
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Number of species
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Relative abundance
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Proportional abundance of a different species in a community
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Trophic structure
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Different feeding relationship in an ecosystem determine route of energy flow and chemical cycling
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Food chain
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Link trophic levels from producers to top carnivores
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Food webs
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Branching food chains and complex trophic interactions
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Dominant species
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Most abundant species in a community
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Keystone species
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Usually less abundant species that exert a disproportionate influence on community structure
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Ecosystem engineers
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Influence community structure through their effects on the physical environment
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The bottom-up model
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A model of community organization in which mineral nutrients influence community organization by controlling plant or phytoplankton numbers, in which turn control herbivore numbers, in which control predator numbers
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Intermediate distrubance hypothesis
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Moderate levels of disturbance can foster greater species diversity than low/high levels of disturbance
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Ecological succession
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Sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance - Primary- occurs where no soil exists - Secondary- Occurs in an area where soil remains after a disturbance
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What are the most widespread agents of disturbance?
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Humans
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Species richness geography
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- Generally decline as you go more north from the tropics to the poles - Climate influences the diversity gradient through energy and water
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Species- area curve
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Biodiversity pattern that the longer the geographic area of a community, the more species it has
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Zoonotic pathogens
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Transferred from other animals to humans AIDS- transferred from monkeys to humans
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Population
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Group of individuals of a single species living in a single area
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Population ecology
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Study of populations in relation to their environment
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Mark-recapture method
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1) Scientists capture and release a random sample of individuals in a population 2) Marked individuals mix back into the population 3) Scientists capture a 2nd sample of individuals (n) and note how many of them are marked (x) Equation: Population size= SN/X
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Demography
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Study of vital statistics in a population and how they change over time
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Survivorship curve
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Graphic way of representing data in a life table
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Change in population size equation
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Births + immigrants entering - deaths - emigrants entering
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Per capita rate of increase
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births - birth rate
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Zero population growth
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When birth rate = death rate
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Carrying capacity
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- (K) Max population the environment can support - Varies with an abundance of limiting resources
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Life history
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Compromises the traits that affect its schedule of reproduction and survival
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Semelparity/ big-bang reproduction
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Reproduce once and die
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Iteroparity/respected reproduction
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Produce offspring repeatedly
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What type of environment breeds big-bang/respected reproduction
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big-bang: unpredictable environments respected: predictable environments
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K strategist
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- Density-dependent selection - S growth curve - Negative feedback
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R strategist
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- Density-independent selection - J growth curve - Natural diasters
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Migratory patterns
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- Involve navigation based on orientation relative to the sun, the stars, or Earth's magnetic field
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How is co-evolution significant in community ecology?
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Interactions can affect evolution
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What is the competitive exclusion principle?
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Two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist in the same place
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Describe Gausse's experiment with Paramecia
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- States that when two species are competing for the same resources, the one that is best adapted or that has an advantage over the other will survive and the other may become extinct. - He placed Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia together in a test tube with the same food supply. P. aurelia grew faster than P. caudatum and when grown together, P.aurelia outmultiplied and eliminated P. caudatum. - In nature, species tend to have niches that are very specific and this reduces direct competition allowing for more species to survive
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Define ecological niche
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Total of a species's use of a/biotic resources
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Define and give an example of resource partioning
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Differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community
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Cryptic coloration
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Organism changes color to its surronding
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Aposematic coloration
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Changes to stand out against the environment
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Batesian mimicry
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A harmless species mimics a harmful one
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Mullerian mimicry
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Two unpalatable species mimic eachother
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What is meant by the 'trophic structure' of a community?
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Feeding relationships between organisms in a community
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What does a food web show that isn't indicated by a food chain?
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More than one trophic interactions
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What limits the length of a food chain?
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Insufficient energy transfer
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Define a keystone species and why are they so important to a community?
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- An organism with a strong control on a community because of their ecological niche - Small population yet large effect
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How does the definition of ecosystems expand on the concept of the community?
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Includes all of the organisms PLUS the abiotic factors with which they interact
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What is needed to maintain a self-sustaining ecosystem?
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Energy flow and chemical cycling
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Primary productivity
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Amount of light energy converted to change chemical energy by autotrophs during a time period
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Gross primary productivity
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Total primary production
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Net primary productivity
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CPP- energy used by primary producers for respiration
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Which ecosystems have the highest productivity per unit area?
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Tropical rain forests, estuaries and coral reefs
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What factors do you think contribute to such high productivity?
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High species number and richness
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Why is the open ocean so low in productivity?
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Limited nutrients
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What is secondary productivity?
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Amount of chemical energy in food converted to new biomass during a given period of time
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Biomass
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Total mass of organisms in a given area or volum
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Explain what happens to the energy and biomass as it is passed through the trophic levels?
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90% of the energy is lost
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Why is it essential that elements move through biogeochemical cycles in the ecosystem?
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Life depends on recycling chemical elements
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What are the major processes that move carbon through the ecosystem?
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- Photosynthesis and phytoplankton remove CO2 which is added back thru. cellular respiration
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How does combustion impact the carbon cycle?
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Combustion of fossil fuels affects carbon output
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Why is human population growth at the root of environmental issue?
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Humans are causing environmental issues
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Define cultural eutrophication. Why is it a problem?
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Depletion of oxygen in a water body that kills aquatic organisms
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What is the source of acid rain? Why is it a problem?
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- Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide is released into the air - Can destroy aquatic environments
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What happens in biological magnification?
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Pesticide and heavy metals move up the food chain and harm organisms
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What would some of the properties of molecules that could be candidates for biological magnification?
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- Toxic materials that can be converted to toxic products that can be converted to more toxic products
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What are some of the possible reasons for global warning called the greenhouse effect?
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- Burning fossil fuels and wood - Increased productivity by vegetation - Rising CO2 levels
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Is depletion of the ozone layer a possible reason for global warming?
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Accumulation of CFCs
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List several additional disruptive impacts humans have had on the environment.
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- Endangered species - Water contamination - Decreasing forests
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Biotic
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Living
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Abiotic
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Non-living
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Biome
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A large community of plants and animals that occupies a distinct region.
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Habitat
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Place where an organism lives
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Niche
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Role of an organism in the ecosystem
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Community
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- Interacting group of species in a common location.
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Ecosystem
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A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
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Limiting factor
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- environmental conditions that limit the growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism or a population of organisms in an ecosystem
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Density-dependent
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Depends on the amount of organisms in the population (food supply)
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Density- independent
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DOES NOT depend on the amount of organisms in the population (weather)
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Logistic vs exponential growth
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Logistic is slower than exponential
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Symbiotic relationships
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- Both creatures benefit from the relationship
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Competitive exclusion principle
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Ecological rule that states that no two species can occupy the same exact niche in the same habitat at the same time
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Resource partitioning
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Differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist.
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Fundamental niche vs realized niche
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A fundamental niche is the full range of conditions and resources an organism can occupy when limiting factors are ABSENT. A realized niche is the range of conditions and resources an organism can occupy while limiting factors are PRESENT.
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Microtome
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Used to cut a specimen of organic tissue, into thin enough pieces so they can put it in microscopes
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Oligiotrophic
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Nutrient poor water- cannot support life
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Eutrophic
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A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria and eventually the death of other organisms in the water
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Biogeochemical cycles
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Process in which elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to another
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Succession vs evolution
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Succession is how a community evolves over time when evolution is how specific organism evolve over time
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Primary productivity vs net productivity
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Primary- rate at which inorganic energy is converted to organic energy Net productivity- primary productivity minus the energy used by organisms in respiration
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Standing crop
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the amount of biomass present in an ecosystem at a particular time
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Producer
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Autotrophic, produces organic compounds
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Consumer
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Heterotrophic, consumes organic compounds
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Bioaccumulation
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the accumulation of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in various tissues of a living organism.
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Top down vs bottom up management
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top level: focuses on interactions between top level organisms bottom up: concentrates on how low resources influence higher trophic levels
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Upwelling
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- A process in which deep, cold water rises toward the surface
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Thermocline
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In water, a distinctive temperature transition zone that separates an upper layer that is mixed by wind (the epilimnion) and a colder, deep layer that is not mixed (the hypolimnion)
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Rainshadow affect
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An area having relatively little precipitation due to the effect of a topographic barrier, especially a mountain range, that causes the prevailing winds to lose their moisture on the windward side, causing the leeward side to be dry
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Density
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# of organisms/ unit of land
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Dispersion
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Pattern of spacing among individuals.
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Extinction vortex
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A downward population spiral in which inbreeding and genetic drift combine to cause a small population to shrink and, unless the spiral is reversed, become extinct.
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Allelic frequencies
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Percentage of time an allele occurs within a population
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Food chain vs food web
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Chain- shows singular chain of interactions Web- shows complex interactions
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Photosynthesis vs cellular respiration
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Photosynthesis- Plants convert sunlight to glucose Cellular respiration- Organisms use glucose to run their cellular functions
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Ectotherm
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An animal whose body does not produce much internal heat
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Endotherm
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An organism that is internally warmed by a heat-generating metabolic process
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Biodiversity
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Number of species and different species in an ecosystem
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Shannon index
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Way to measure both number of species and species richness
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Species transplants/invasive species
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organisms that are intentionally or accidentally relocated from their original distribution
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Interspecific competition
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Competition between members of different species
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Intraspecific competition
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competition between members of the same species
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How does the biomass form earth's conditions?
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Five major biomes: - Desert - Aquatic - Forrest - Grassland - Tundra
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How does climate affect communities and populations?
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Affects food supply.. can create evolution (natural selection)... has a wide-ranging affect on ecosystems
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Why are most ecosystems limited to 4-5 trophic levels?
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Because most of the energy transferred between trophic levels is lost. 10% efficiency leads to the higher trophic levels not taking in a lot of energy.
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How do symbioses affect ecosystem structure?
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They affect the roles and niches organisms take in an environment. Commensalism, mutualism, etc- all affect how organisms find their niches in the environment.
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Mimicry
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Ability of an animal to look like another more harmful animal
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Character displacement
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where differences among similar species whose distributions overlap geographically are accentuated in regions where the species co-occur, but are minimized or lost where the species' distributions do not overlap
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Why is character displacement more apparent in sympatric speciation?
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Character displacement shows more differences in places were species overlap geographically- sympatric speciation is where speciation occurs in the same geographic area. So it would obviously be more apparent
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How is facilitation different from most relationships in an ecosystem?
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Most relationships harm at least one person in an ecosystem- facilitation helps at least one, and harms neither
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Character displacement
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Benefits one of the species but doesn't harm either
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What is the evolutionary advantage of altruism?
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According to hamilton's rule, altruism will eventually come back to help the organism who originally helps in the end. In the same species, helps the survival of the species including the organism that helped.
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Augmentation
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- Increase species diversity ?
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Bioremediation
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The use of living organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems
