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Element

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Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

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Minerals

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Inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain to humans and other organisms

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Element Structure

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Atomic number: the number of protons in its nucleus Atomic weight (relative atomic mass): total of protons and neutrons in the element

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Planetary Model

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A model of atomic structure similar to planets orbiting the sun

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Atomic Structure

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*In the nucleus are Protons and Neutrons. -Protons have a single positive charge -Neutrons have no charge *Around the nucleus are electrons, which have a single negative charge and low mass. *Electrons swarm around the nucleus in electron shells (energy levels). The more energy an electron has, the farther away from the nucleus its orbit lies. *Electrons of the outermost shell, called valence electrons, determine the chemical bonding properties of an atom..

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Isotopes

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*Varieties of an element that have a difference in neutrons/atomic mass *Many of them are unstable and decay to more stable isotopes by giving off radiation

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Radioisotopes

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Unstable isotopes

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Radioactivity

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Process of decay

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Ionizing Radiation

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*Destroys molecules and produces dangerous free radicals and ions *Low doses= mutagenic (causing mutations in DNA) and carcinogenic (triggering cancer as a result of mutation)

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Kinds of Radiation Produced by Nuclear Decay

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*Alpha Particles: Composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons; too large to penetrate skin *Beta Particles: A free electron; can penetrate skin by a few millimeters *Gamma Rays

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Physical Half-Life

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The time required for 50% of its atoms to decay to a more stable state

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Biological Half-Life

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Of a radioisotope; The time required for half of it to disappear from the body

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Ions

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Charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons *Form because elements with one->three valence electrons tend to give them up, and those with four->seven electrons tend to gain more

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Ionization

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Transfer of electrons from one element to another, turning them both into ions

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Anion

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Ion that gains electrons from ionization, resulting in a negative charge

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Cation

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Ion that loses electrons from ionization, resulting in a positive charge

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Octet Rule

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Number of electrons in outer valency shell is always 8

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Electrolytes

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*Substances that ionize in water (acids, bases, or salts) and form solutions capable of conducting electricity *Important for their chemical reactivity, osmotic effects (influence on water content and distribution to the body), and electrical effects (essential to nerve and muscle function)

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**Major Electrolytes and the Ions Released by their Dissociation**

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Electrolyte-> Cation and Anion ~~~ **See table 2.2 on page 46 of book, it has the chemical formulae**

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Electrolyte Concentrations

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*Their electrical effects, which determine such things as nerve, hearts, and muscle actions, depend not only on their concentration but also on their electrical charge *One equivalent of an electrolyte is the amount that would electrically neutralize 1 mole of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions *Electrolytes in our body fluids have concentrations less than 1 Eq/L, so we more often express their concentrations in milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L)

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Free Radicals

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**DESTROYS MOLECULES** *Chemical particles with an odd number of electrons *Represented with a dot to symbolize the odd electron *Produced by some normal metabolic reactions of the body, by radiation, and by chemicals *Short-lived and combine quickly with molecules such as fats, proteins, and DNA, converting them into free radicals and triggering chain reactions that destroy more molecules --(EXTRA INFO)

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Antioxidant

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A chemical that neutralizes free radicals

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Molecules

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Chemical particles composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond

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Compounds

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Molecules composed of two or more elements

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Molecular Weight

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The sum of the atomic weights of its atoms

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Chemical Bonds

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Forces that hold molecules together (attraction) *Ionic Bonds *Covalent Bonds *Hydrogen Bonds *Van Der Waals Forces

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Ionic Bond

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*The attraction of a cation to an anion *Can be composed of two or more ions *Weak and easily dissociate (break up) in the presence of something more attractive

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Covalent Bonds

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*Form by sharing electrons *Single Covalent Bond- Sharing of one pair of electrons -Symbolized by one line between atomic symbols -Bonds are strong -Formed between two non-metals *Double Covalent bond- Sharing of 2 pairs of electrons - Symbolized by double lines between atomic symbols

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Nonpolar Covalent Bond

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*Shared electrons spend equal time around each nucleus *Strongest of all covalent bonds *Carbon atoms bond together using these bonds *Same # of electrons

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Polar Covalent Bond

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*If shared electrons spend significantly more time orbiting one nucleus than they do the other, they lend their negative charge to the region where they spend the most time, and they form a POLAR COVALENT BOND

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Hydrogen Bond

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*Weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another *Represented by dotted or broken lines between atoms

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Van der Waals Forces

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*Weak, brief attractions between neutral atoms *Single VdWF is about 1% as strong as a covalent bond, but VdWF between large numbers of atoms can create a very strong attraction *Important in protein folding, the binding of proteins to each other and to other molecules such as hormones, and the association of lipid molecules with each other *Organic Chemistry

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Mixture

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*Substances that are physically blended but not chemically combined *Each substance retains its own chemical properties

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Water

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*50 to 75% of body weight *Its atoms are joined by polar covalent bonds *The molecule is V-shaped, with a 105 Degree bond angle *Molecule as a whole is polar *Properties that account for its ability to support life: Solvency, Cohesion, Adhesion, Chemical Reactivity, and Thermal Stability

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Solvency

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*Ability to dissolve other chemicals *Water is the universal solvent because it dissolves a broader range of substances than any other liquid *In order to be soluble in water, a molecule must be polarized or charged so that its charges can interact with those of water

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Solute

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*Can be a gas, solid, or liquid *

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Hydrophilic

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Substances that dissolve in water

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Hydrophobic

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Substances that do not dissolve in water

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Cohesion

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Tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other Ex: Water's hydrogen bonds Ex: Spilling water and having it form a puddle

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Adhesion

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Tendency of one substance to cling to another Ex: Water clinging to body's tissues to form a lubricating film on membranes

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Surface Tension

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*Bi-product of cohesion

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Chemical Reactivity

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*Water's ability to participate in chemical reactions Ex:Water ionizes many other chemicals such as acids and salts, but water itself ionizes into H+ and OH-

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Thermal Stability

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*Helps to stabilize the internal temperature of the body *Water has high heat capacity *Hydrogen bonds of water molecules inhibit their movement, so water can absorb a given amount of heat without changing temperature (molecular motion) as much *Water's high heat capacity makes it a very effective coolant

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Solution

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Consists of particles of matter called the solute mixed with a more abundant substance called the solvent *Defined by following properties: -Solute particles are under 1 nanometer in size; solute and solvent cannot be visually distinguished from each other -Small particles do not scatter light noticeably, so solutions are usually transparent -Solute particles will pass through most selectively permeable membranes -Solute does not separate from the solvent when the solution is allowed to stand

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Colloid

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*Most common Colloids are mixtures of protein and water, such as albumin *Can change from liquid to gel states *Defined by following properties: -Colloidal particles range from 1 to 100 nm in size -Particles this large scatter light, so colloids are usually cloudy -Particles are too large to pass through most selectively permeable membranes -Particles are still small enough to remain permanently mixed with the solvent when the mixture stands

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Suspension

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*Blood cells in our blood plasma *Defined by following properties: -Suspended particles exceed 100 nm in size -Such large particles render suspensions cloudy or opaque -Particles are too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes -Particles are too heavy to remain permanently suspended, so suspensions separate on standing

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Emulsion

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A suspension of one liquid in another Ex: oil-and-vinegar salad dressing

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Measure of Concentration

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A simple way to express concentration is the weight of solute in a given volume of solution

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Molarity

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*High molarity if there is a lot of solute *Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

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Acid

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Any proton donor, a molecule that releases a proton (H+) in water

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Base/Alkaline

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Proton acceptor

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pH

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*Expresses acidity *Scale from 0-14 *A measure derived from the molarity of H+ *pH= -log[H+] *pH of 7.0 is neutral *pH below 7.0 is acidic pH above 7.0 is basic *Change of one # on pH scale represents a 10-fold change in H+ concentration; (change in 2 #s = 100)

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Buffer

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A chemical solution that resists changed in pH

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Energy

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Capacity to do work -Work= to move something Ex of physiological work: breaking chemical bonds, building molecules, pumping blood, contracting skeletal muscles *Potential and Kinetic Energy

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Potential Energy

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Energy contained in an object because of its position or internal state but that is not doing work at the time

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Kinetic Energy

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Energy of motion/energy that is doing work Ex: flow of ions into cell, vibration of eardrum, musculoskeletal movements

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Chemical Energy

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Potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules *Chemical reactions release this energy to make it available for physiological work *Heat is the kinetic energy of molecular motion *Temp. of a substance is a measure of rate of this motion, and adding heat to a substance increases this rate

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Electromagnetic Energy

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*The kinetic energy of moving packets of radiation called photons *Most familiar form of electromagnetic energy is light *Has both kinetic and potential forms -Potential when charged particles have accumulated at a point -Kinetic when these particles begin to move and create an electrical current

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Free Energy

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Potential energy available in a system to do useful work *Most relevant free energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds of organic molecules

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Chemical Reaction

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Process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken *Course of a chemical reaction is symbolized by a chemical equation that typically shows reactants on the left, products on the right, and an arrow pointing from reactants to products *Classified as decomposition, synthesis, or exchange reactions

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Decomposition Reaction

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A large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones *AB-> A + B

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Synthesis Reaction

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Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one *A + B -> AB

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Exchange Reaction

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Two molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms *AB + CD -> AC + BD

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Reversible Reaction

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*Can go in either direction under different circumstances *Direction is determined by the relative abundance of substances on each side of the equation *Follow the law of mass action *Exist in a state of equilibrium; ratio of products to reactants is stable

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Law of Mass Action

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Proceed from the reactants in greater quantity to the substances with the lesser quantity

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Reaction Rates

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*Rate of a reaction depends on the nature of the reactants and on the frequency and force of these collisions *Factors that affection reaction rates: concentration, temperature, catalysts

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Reaction Rate: Concentration

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Reaction rates increase when the reactants are more concentrated *Molecules are more crowded and collide frequently

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Reaction Rate: Temperature

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*Reaction rate increases and temperature rises *Heat causes molecules to move rapidly and collide with greater force

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Reaction Rate: Catalysts

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*Substances that temporarily bind to reactants, hold them in a favorable position to react with each others, and may change the shapes of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react *Releases products and is available to repeat the process with more reactants **Speeds up reaction** *Not consumed or changed by the reaction *Enzymes

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Metabolism

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* *Anabolism and Catabolism

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Catabolism

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Energy-releasing decomposition reactions *Reactions break covalent bonds, produce smaller molecules from larger ones, release energy *Exergonic Reactions- energy releasing reactions

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Anabolism

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Consists of energy-storing synthesis reactions, such as the production of protein or fat *Endergonic Reactions- Reactions that require energy input

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Oxidation

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Any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy *Molecule becomes oxidized *Molecule that takes the electrons from it is an oxidizing agent (Electron acceptor) *Oxygen is often an electron acceptor

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Reduction

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*Chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons and energy *Molecule is reduced when it accepts electrons *Molecule is a reducing agent (electron donor) when it donates electrons

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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox Reactions)

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Electron transfers as hydrogen atoms *Oxidation of one molecule is followed by reduction of another

A&P1 Chapter 2: Inorganic Chemistry – Flashcards

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