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Biological Psychology

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Specialized branch of psychology that studies the relationship between behavior and bodily processes and systems; also called biopsychology

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Neuroscience

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The study of the nervous system, especially the brain

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Neuron

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Highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell

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Glial Cell

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Support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; manufacture myelin

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Sensory Neuron

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Type of neuron that sends messages to the brain cord and brain

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Motor Neuron

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Type of neuron that signals muscles to relax or contract, messages from the brain

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Interneuron

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Type of neuron that communicates information from one neuron to the next

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Cell Body

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The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus

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Dendrites

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Multiple short fibers that extend from the neuron's cell body and receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells

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Axon

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The long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron's messages from cell body to axon terminals

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Myelin Sheath

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A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed

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Action Potential

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A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron

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Stimulus Threshold

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The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron

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Resting Potential

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State in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation

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All-or-None Law

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The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur

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Synapse

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The point of communication between two neurons

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Synaptic Gap / cleft / synapse

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The tiny space separating the axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron from the cell membrane of the post-synaptic neuron

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Axon Terminals

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often multiple axon terminals at the end of a single axon, each contains many synaptic vesicles

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Synaptic Vesicles

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Tiny pouches or sacs in the axon terminals that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters prior to their release into the synapse

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Neurotransmitters

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Chemical messengers manufactured and released by a neuron as a means of signaling and influencing the activity of other neurons, glands, or muscles

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Synaptic Transmission

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The process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect adjoining neurons

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Reuptake

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The process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from a postsynaptic neuron and are reabsorbed by a presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again

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Acetylcholine

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Neurotransmitter that causes muscle contraction and is involved in memory function

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Dopamine

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Neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of bodily movement, thought processes, and rewarding sensations

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Serotonin

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Neurotransmitter involved in sleep and emotions

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GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

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Neurotransmitter that usually communicates an inhibitory message

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Endorphins

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Neurotransmitters that regulate pain perceptions

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Nervous System

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The primary internal communication network of the body; divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

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Nerves

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Bundles of neuron axons that carry information in the peripheral nervous system

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Central Nervous System

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Division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord

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Spinal Reflexes

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Simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord

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Peripheral Nervous System

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Division of the nervous system that includes all the nerves lying outside the central nervous system (autonomic and somatic)

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Somatic Nervous System

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Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that communicates sensory information to the central nervous system and carries motor messages from the central nervous system to the muscles

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Autonomic Nervous System

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Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions

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Sympathetic Nervous System

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Branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats; fight or flight

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

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Branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal bodily functions and conserves the body's physical resources; digestion, metabolism, growth maintenance and immune system

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Endocrine System

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System of glands located throughout the body that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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Hormones

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Chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands

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Pineal Gland

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Produces melatonin, which helps regulates sleep-wake cycles (endocrine)

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Thyroid Gland

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Controls body metabolism rate

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Pancreas

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endocrine gland that regulates blood sugar and insulin levels; involved in hunger

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Ovaries

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Secrete estrogen and progesterone, which regulate female sexual development and reproduction and influence sexual behavior

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Testes

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Secrete testosterone, which regulates male sexual development and reproduction and influences sexual behavior

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Pituitary Gland

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Endocrine gland attached to the base of the brain that secretes hormones that affect the function of other glands as well as hormones that act directly on physical processes; master gland

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Adrenal Glands

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Pair of endocrine glands that are involved in the human stress response

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Adrenal Cortex

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Outer portion of the adrenal glands

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Adrenal Medulla

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The inner portion of the adrenal glands; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

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Gonads

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The endocrine glands that secrete hormones that regulate sexual characteristics and reproductive processes; ovaries in females and testes in males

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Phrenology

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A discredited pseudoscientific theory of the brain that claimed that personality characteristics, moral character, and intelligence could be determined by examining the bumps on a person's skull

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Cortical Localization

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The notion that different functions are located or localized in different areas of the brain; also referred to as localization of function

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EEG (Electroencephalograph)

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An instrument that produces a graphic record of the brain's electrical activity by using electrodes placed on the scalp (like microphones outside a football stadium)

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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

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An imaging technique that provides three-dimensional, highly detailed images of the brain using electrical signals generated by the brain in response to magnetic fields; anatomical and functional view of the brain, detects blood flow

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PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

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An imaging technique that provides color-coded images of the brain activity by measuring the amount of a radioactive compound, glucose, or oxygen used in different brain regions; functional view, glucose

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fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

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An imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain's blood supply during different mental activities

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Cognitive Neuroscience

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The study of the neural basis of cognitive process that integrates contributions from psychology, neuroscience, and computer science

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Neurogenesis

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The development of new neurons

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Brainstem

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A region of the brain made up of the hindbrain and the midbrain

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Hindbrain

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A region at the base of the brain that contains several structures that regulate basic life functions

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Medulla

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A hindbrain structure that controls vital life functions such as breathing and circulation

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Pons

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A hindbrain structure that connects the medulla to the two sides of the cerebellum; helps coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body

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Cerebellum

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A large, two-sided hindbrain structure at the back of the brain responsible for muscle coordination and maintaining posture and equilibrium; muscle memory

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Reticular Formation

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A network of nerve fibers located in the center of the medulla that helps regulate attention, arousal, and sleep; also called the reticular activating system

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Midbrain

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The middle and smallest brain regions involved in processing auditory and visual sensory information

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Substantia Nigra

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An area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons; Parkinson's disease

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Forebrain

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The largest and most complex brain region, which contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes: the limbic system

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Cerebral Cortex

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The wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain. which contains the most sophisticated brain centers

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Cerebral Hemispheres

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The nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex

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Corpus Callosum

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A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them

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Temporal Lobe

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An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information, contains the amygdala, and hippocampus; Wernicke's area

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Occipital Lobe

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An area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual information; primary visual cortex

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Parietal Lobe

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An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal love that processes sensations from the body; somatosensory cortex

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Frontal Lobe

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The largest lobe of each cerebral hemisphere; processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control; primary motor cortex, Broca's area

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Limbic System

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A group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and are involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory

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Hippocampus

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A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming NEW memories

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Thalamus

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A forebrain structure that processes sensory information for all senses. except smell, and relays it to the cerebral cortex

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Hypothalamus

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A peanut-sized forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors related to survival, such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity

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Amygdala

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An almond-shaped forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in emotion and memory, especially fear anxiety and anger

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Lateralization of Function

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The notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one SIDE of the brain

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Split-Brain Operation

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A surgical procedure that involves cutting the corpus callosum

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(Pierre Paul) Broca

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Surgeon and neuroanatomist who in 1861 discovered an area on the lower left frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex that, when damaged, produces speech production issues but no loss of comprehension

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(Karl) Wernicke

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Neurologist who in 1874 discovered an area on the left temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex that , when damaged, produces meaningless or nonsensical speech and difficulties in verbal or written comprehension; inability to understand language

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(Roger) Sperry

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Psychologist who received the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his pioneering research on brain specialization in split-brain patients

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basic functions of the nervous system

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regulate essential bodily functions, generate simple immediate response to stimulus, generate complex motivated response

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motor output

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subdivision of the somatic nervous system that relays signals from the central nervous system outward to muscles to control movement and motion

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sensory input

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subdivision of the somatic nervous system; sent to the central nervous system from the peripheral nerves that respond to internal stimuli, and nerves that respond to external stimuli

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nucleys accumbens

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site activated in response to rewarding / reinforcing / pleasurable stimuli, role in addictions

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homunculus

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miniature person in those two strips of the brain that control motor and sensory

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CT Scan (computed tomography)

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brain scan that only shows the structure of the brain and not the functions

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right hemisphere functions of the brain

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spatial tasks, emotions

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left hemisphere functions of the brain

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verbal tasks, language

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H.M. (Henry G. Molaison)

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had his temporal lobes removed; role of the hippocampus in forming new episodic memories was lost, retained previous memories prior to surgery

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Phineas Gage

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role of the frontal cortex in personality and "executive functions, iron bar through his skull

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neurotransmitter receptor binding sites

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structures embedded in the cell membrane at synapses which can be activated by the presence and binding of neurotransmitters; signaling molecules released by other neurons

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axon hillock

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sufficient de-polarization of this region of the some triggers an action potential

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common mechanisms of drug action

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agonists, antagonists, neuromodulators

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agonists

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mimic the action of neurotransmitters

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antagonists

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block the action of neurotransmitters

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neuromodulators

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increase or decrease effectiveness of neurotransmitters

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endocrine; hormones

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the ___ system refers to the glands throughout our bodies, which regulate bodily functions by releasing signaling molecules called ___ into the circulatory system (bloodstream)

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pineal

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the ___ gland is located in the brain, and releases melatonin in response to decreasing light levels, to help regulate our sleep-wake cycles

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pituitary

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the ___ gland is located in the brain near the hypothalamus; both work together to regulate essential bodily functions, including regulation of the activity of other glandular secretions, which is why this gland is sometimes referred to as the "master" gland

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fight, flight, feeding, mating

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Provide examples of four types of motivated behaviors mediated by the hypothalamus ___, ___, ___, ___

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central

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together, the brain and the spinal cord comprise the ___ nervous system

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peripheral; somatic; motor; sensory; sympathetic; parasympathetic

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the ___ system refers to all of the nerves that extend outward from the spinal cord to and from the rest of the body. It consists of two major divisions, on of which, the ___ division, sends ___ output to control the muscles of the body and relays ___ input to the spinal cord / brain. The other major divisions, the autonomic nervous system, also has two major divisions, one of which, the ___ nervous system, activates systems within the body to prepare for emergency situations, whereas the other, the ___ nervous system serves as a 'break' on emergency response, and stimulates digestion, immune function, growth, and body maintenance

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spinal cord; sensory; interneurons; motor

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the limb-withdrawal reflex is controlled by the ___. More specifically, ___ neurons relay painful stimuli from sensory receptors in the skin to the central nervous system; ___ relay the incoming sensory stimulus to the brain and to ___ neurons, which send action potentials to muscles of the body to initiate the limb withdrawal response.

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amygdala

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the ___, located in the medial temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex, plays a crucial role in triggering emotional responses, especially 'negative' emotions, such as fear, anxiety, and anger

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hippocampus

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another temporal lobe structure, the ___, plays a crucial role in the formation of episodic memories

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hindbrain; cerebellum

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from an evolutionary perspective, the ___ is the 'oldest' of the three major subdivisions of the brain. The region contains the ___, which plays a crucial role in maintaining posture and balance, and in forming new memories for physical skills learned movements

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reticular formation

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another brain region located within the major brain subdivision referred to above, the ___, plays a role in regulating levels of arousal

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midbrain; Parkinson's disease

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another of the three major subdivisions of the brain, the ___, contains the tectum and the substantia nigra, a brain region that contains dopaminergic neurons that play a role in ___, an age-related movement disorder

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limbic system

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the ___ system is one of the evolutionarily "oldest" parts of the forebrain, and consists of several forebrain structures, including the amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus

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thalamus

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the ___ is a forebrain structure that serves as a major 'relay-station'; incoming sensory input from all of our sense- except smell- is relayed through this structure prior to arriving in sensory cortical areas

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occipital

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primary visual processing occurs in the ___ lobes of the cerebral cortex

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parietal

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primary processing of sensory input from the body (bodily sensations, touch) takes place in the ___ lobes of the cerebral cortex

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temporal

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the ___ lobes of the cerebral cortex are where primary processing of auditory stimuli takes place

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frontal

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commands to produce volutary movements originate in a strip of motor cortex located in the ___ lobes of the cerebral cortex

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temporal

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the hippocampus and the amygdala are located in the medial aspects of the ___ lobes of the cerebral cortex

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frontal

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executive function such as planning, decision making, rational thought, and impulse control are associated primarily with the ___ lobes of the cerebral cortex

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Boca's area; Wernicke's area

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___ is a region of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere that plays a crucial role in the production of comprehensible speech; in contrast, ___ is located in the left temporal lobe, and plays a role in language comprehension

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corpus callosum

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the ___ is a major forebrain sturcture consisting of the axons extending from neurons in each cerebral hemisphere to neurons on the opposite side of the brain, and serves as the major communication link between the two hemispheres

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soma; dendrites; neurotransmitter receptor binding sites

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the main cell body of neuron, or ___, and the numerous branch-like extensions called ___ that extend outward from it, are covered with ___, structure on the cell surface that can be activated / stimulated by neurotransmitter molecules released by other neurons

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synaptic vesicles; axon terminals; synaptic gap or 'synapse'

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prior to their release by a neuron, neurotransmitter molecules are stored within packages called ___, which are located within ___, at the distal end of an axon; upon the arrival of an action potential, neurotransmitter molecules are released by the neuron into the small space between the two neurons, the ___

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autonomic nervous system

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involuntary ongoing body functions, such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion are regulated by the ___

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central nervous system

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together, the brain and spinal cord make up the ___

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pituitary gland

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___ is referred to as the mastery gland

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glial cells

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of the two major types of cells that make up the central nervous system, the type that is by far the most abundant, and which provides waste removal, structural support, and other support functions, is called ___

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your spinal cord

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which cooking a meal you inadvertently touch a very hot dish. You instantly pull your arm and hand away from it, a reflexive action primarily controlled by ___

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