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memory

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the persistence of learning ocer time thru the storage and retrieval of info

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flashbulb memory

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event; but can err

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encoding

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the processing of info into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning

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storage

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the retention of encoded info over time

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retrieval

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the process of getting info out of memory storage

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sensory memory

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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short-term memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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three-stage processing

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Atkinson and Shiffrin's model of memory; suggests we form memories thru 3 stages: sensory, short-term, long-term memory; limited and fallible

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working memory

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a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. Content quickly fades unless we keep using or rehearsing it

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central executive processor

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coordinates the auditory and visual-spatial elements of working memory; directs focus

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automatic processing

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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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effortful processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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rehearsal

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the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

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Ebbinghaus

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German philosopher, researched verbal memory; learned that the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning

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overlearning

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additional rehearsal even after we learn material; increases retention

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next-in-line effect

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when ppl go around in circle saying words or their names, poorest memories are for what was said by the person just before them; we focus on our own performance and fail to process last person's words

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spacing effect

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice; the longer the intervals in between repeated studying or practicing, the longer you'll remember it

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serial position effect

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our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list; for immediate recall, last items best, and for later recall, only first items recalled well

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visual encoding

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the encoding of picture images

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acoustic encoding

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the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

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semantic encoding

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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words; produces better recognition of a word at a later time than does shallow processing by attending to its appearance or sound

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self-reference effect

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phenomenon; we have especially good recall for info we can relate to ourselves

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imagery

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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

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rosy retrospection

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phenomenon where ppl tend to recall the high points hile forgetting the mundane moments; like ppl recalling events such as a camping holiday more positively than they evaluated them at the time

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mnemonics

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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices; "method of loci," "peg-word" system, acronyms

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chunking

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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hierarchies

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few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts; like outline format; efficient way to retrieve info

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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echoic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds adn words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

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working/short term memory

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short-term memories are limited in duration without active processing; also limited in capacity, as it typically stores just 7 or so bits of info

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long-term memory

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our capacity for storing long-term memories is essentially limitless

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

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an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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"cognitive enhancers"

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memory-boosting drugs; some boost production of the protein CREB, some glutamate (neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication (LTP)), etc.

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stress hormones and memory

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stress hormones produced when excited or stressed make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity; amygdala boosts activity in brain's memory-forming areas; strong emotional experiences make fore stronger memories; but prolonged stress can corrode neural connections and shrink hippocampus which is vital for laying down memories; also when sudden stress hormones are flowing, older memories may be blocked

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amnesia

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the loss of memory; victims can't recall new facts or anything they've done recently, but they can still learn (without being aware that they're learning though)

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implicit memory

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retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called procedural memory). Learning how to do something

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explicit memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory). Knowing and declaring that they know

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hippocampus

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a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage; lateralized, one on L and R; active during slow-wave sleep; a temporary processing site for your explicit memories

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cerebellum

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plays key role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning

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recall

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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recognition

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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

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relearning

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a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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retrieval cues

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anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later

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priming

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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Ask a friend two rapid-fire questions: (a) How do you pronounce the word spelled by the letters s-h-o-p? (b) What do you do when you come to a green light? If your friend answers "stop" to the 2nd Q, you have demonstrated priming; "memoryless memory"

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deja vu

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that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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state-dependent memory

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subtle phenomenon that states that what we learn in one state- be it joyful or sad, drunk or sober- is sometumes more easily recalled when we are again in that state

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mood-congruent memory

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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forgetting

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to discard the clutter of useless or out-of-date information; helpful; seven sins of memory

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three sins of forgetting

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absent-mindedness (inattention to details produces encoding failure), transience (storage decay over time), blocking (inaccessibility of stored info)

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three sins of distortion

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misattribution (confusing the source of info), suggestibility (the lingering effects of misinformation), bias (belief-colored recollections)

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one sin of intrusion

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persistence (unwanted memories)

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encoding failure

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age can affect encoding efficiency (age-related memory decline), and also without effort, many memories never form

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forgetting curve

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by Ebbinghaus; indicates that much of what we learn we may indeed quickly forget; course of forgetting initially rapid, but then levels off with time

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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retroactive interference

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the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information; you can minimize it by reducing the # of interfering events (by sleeping shortly after learning new info, taking walk, etc.)

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positive transfer

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when old information can facilitate our learning of new information

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repression

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories; but the submerged memory may be retrieved by some later cue or during therapy

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misinformation effect

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event; time, our guesses and assumptions, imagining, and others' vivid retelling of an event can implant false memories

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source amnesia

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

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discerning true and false memories

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memories are akin to perceptions; also because gist (meanings and feelings we associate w/ it) memories are durable, false memories may outlast true ones; confidence in eyewitnesses doesn't show accuracy; also "hypnotically refreshed" memories

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cognitive interview technique

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asking less suggestive, more effective questions in interviews; to activate retrieval cues, detectives ask witnesses to visualize scene, and then ask evocative follow-up Q's

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children's eyewitness recall

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nonleading questions can much improve their recall; leading and suggestive Q's plant false memories

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"memory wars"

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intense controvery in 1990's; concerned claims of repressed and recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse; therapists used hypnosis, "guided imagery," and dream analysis; many criticized- adding to ppl's trauma and falsely accusing some adults; but both sides agree that injustice happens, incest and other sexual abuse happen, forgetting happens, recovered memories are commonplace, memories "recovered" under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are esp. unreliable, memories of things happening b4 age are also unreliable (infantile amnesia), and memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting

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tips on improving memory

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study repeatedly to boost long-term recall; spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material; make the material personally meaningful; to remember a list of unfamiliar items, use mnemonic devices; refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues; recall events while they are fresh, before you encounter possible misinfo; minimize interference; test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know.

AP Psych Ch. 9 – Flashcards

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