AP Lang Midterms – Flashcards

an admission in an argument that the opposing side has points; to grant aloow to yield to a point

a change or movement in a piece from one point, idea, concept, etc. to another; signaled by words such as but, then, however, etc.

the form of reasoning in which we come to conclusions about the whole on the basis of observations of particular instances. If you notice that prices on the four items you bought in the campus bookstore are higher than similar items in the bookstore in town, you may come to the conclusion that the campus store is a more expensive place to shop. If you also noticed that all three of the instructors you saw on the first day of school were wearing faded jeans and running shoes, you might say that your teachers are generally informal in their dress. In both cases you have made an inductive leap, reasoning from what you have learned about a few examples to what you think is true of a whole class of things.

is the process of moving from a general rule to a specific example. While induction attempts to arrive at the truth, deduction guarantees sound relationships between statements. If each of a series of statements, called premises, is true, deductive logic tells us that the conclusion must also be true. Unlike the conclusions from induction, which are only probable, the conclusions from deduction are certain. The simplest deductive argument consists of two premises and a conclusion.

by definition, simply try to diminish the power of the opponent. Normally, people consider a rebuttal that relies on reason (logos) to be more ethical than one that relies on emotion (pathos) or on personal attack (ethos). But, some of the ancient rhetoricians seemed to think it was okay to use all of these strategies.

an emphatic statement; declaration. An assertion supported by evidence becomes an argument

a belief or statement taken for granted without proof

is the act of faulting or blaming someone

the part of an argument in which a speaker or writer counters opposing points of view.

is two propositions used in combination where one makes the other impossible.

a concise summary.

is an attempt to support a statement by simply repeating the statement in different or stronger terms. In this fallacy, the reason given is nothing more than a restatement of the conclusion that poses as the reason for the conclusion. "You can't give me a C. I'm an A student." "Exercise is good for you."

is a statement that is completely unbiased. It is not touched by the speaker's previous experiences or tastes. It is verifiable by looking up facts or performing mathematical calculations.

is a statement that has been colored by the character of the speaker or writer. It often has a basis in reality, but reflects the perspective through with the speaker views reality. It cannot be verified using concrete facts and figures. Opinions, interpretations, and any type of marketing presentation are all subjective.

is the act of turning from your original discussion. This can be an intentional way of deflecting attention.

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices.

an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.

The substitution of an inoffensive term (such as "passed away") for one considered offensively explicit ("died").

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase.

substituting a part for a whole, i.e., referring to a hundred ships as "a hundred sails," or saying "We have fifteen head of cattle" when you, hopefully, have the entire animals, not just their heads.

referring to something in terms of a closely-associated object, i.e., referring to a businessman as "a suit," or to a king as "the crown," or a preppy guy as "so J. Crew."

deliberate overstatement, i.e., calling a paper cut "a gaping wound."

is a comparison between two things, or pairs of things, to reveal their similarities for the purpose of explanation. William Paley proposed the famous analogy in which he compared the world to a finely tuned watch, and argued that a watch (designed) requires a watchmaker (designer).

is an indirect reference to a person, event or piece of literature that is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with such as famous people, history, (Greek) mythology, literature, and/or the Bible. If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers mind

a comparison of different things by speaking of them as "like" or "as" the same; e.g. "thy two eyes, like stars." The simile "Oh, my love is like a red, red rose," for example, serves as the title and first line to a poem by Robert Burns

reversing the normal word order of a sentence; e.g. "Whose woods these are I think I know." (Robert Frost)

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases or clauses. "We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools." (Martin Luther King, Jr., speech at St. Louis, 1964 "Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing." (Goethe)

A figure of speech in which some absent or nonexistent person or thing is addressed as if present and capable of understanding. "O stranger of the future! O inconceivable being!" (Billy Collins, "To a Stranger Born in Some Distant Country Hundreds of Years from Now") "Hello darkness, my old friend I've come to talk with you again . . .." (Paul Simon, "The Sounds of Silence") "Bright star, would I were steadfast as thou art" (John Keats)

A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. "'Not a bad day's work on the whole,' he muttered, as he quietly took off his mask, and his pale, fox-like eyes glittered in the red glow of the fire. 'Not a bad day's work.'" (Baroness Emmuska Orczy, The Scarlet Pimpernel, 1905)

to explain your subject with instances that show the reader its nature or character. Sample: "We Are Free to Be You, Me, Stupid, and Dead," an essay in which the author provides examples of both outrageous expression and outrageous attempts to stifle expression

to tell readers the reasons for or consequences of your subject, explaining why or what. Sample: "The Rise and Fall of a Hit," an article about the impact of the internet on CD sales

to explain or evaluate your subject by helping readers see the similarities and differences between it and another subject. Sample: "Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts," an essay in which the author explores the similarities and differences of two American generals.

to help readers see order in your subject by understanding the kinds or groups it can be sorted into. Sample: Stephanie Ericsson's "The Ways We Lie"

to inform readers how to do something or how something works—how a sequence of actions leads to a particular result. Sample: "Orientation," an essay in which the author explains how the office dynamics work

to help readers understand your subject through the evidence of their senses—sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Sample: "Orange Crush," an essay in which the author describes the taste of the American orange drink Tang.

to tell a story about your subject, possibly to enlighten readers or to explain something to them. Sample: "Indian Education" by Sherman Alexie

to have readers consider your opinion about your subject or your proposal for it. "Everything Isn't Racial Profiling," an essay in which the author argues that racial profiling should be used as a tool against terrorism

to show readers the meaning of your subject—its boundaries and its distinction from other subjects. Sample: Gloria Naylor's "Meaning of a Word"

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to his/her correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor.

(specifically why an author shifts point of view)-- the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. Important Side note: When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude.

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as "modes of discourse") are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.

a result or consequence that is produced by the communication.

the purpose for which the communication is designed or why it exists. Also known as rhetorical purpose.

the reason why the communication exists; why the author is writing or why the speaker is speaking.

the tools and mechanisms that the writer employs to develop the strategy. They include alliteration, allusion, analogy, antithesis, apostrophe, epithet (we will cover this later), hyperbole, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, parallelism, personification, rhetorical question, simile, understatement/litotes (*all figures of speech)

choices and how the author uses rhetorical devices. They include diction, syntax, tone/attitude, organization, point of view.

the plan for achieving a specific writing purpose.

a method a writer uses to have a conversation with the reader.

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example follows: "But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted." The antecedent of "it" (bolded) is...? [answer: "all truth"]

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.