AP Human Geography Unit 6 Review – Flashcards
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When and why did humans begin to farm?
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about 10,000 years ago; for the transition of land areas
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What are some consequences (good and bad) of industrialization?
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the gap between the rich and the poor growing and the divide becoming more pronounced; economic development
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What is the basis of industrialization?
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the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery and specialized labor to produce standardized goods
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Describe the secondary sector. Give some examples. When was it first invented, and when did it become big around the world?
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grows quickly as societies industrialize; refining petroleum into gasoline and turning metals into tools and automobiles; late 18th century; late 20th century
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Give some examples of tertiary jobs.
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construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services, government, transportation
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Give some examples of newly-industrializing countries. Explain two of them
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Asian countries and parts of Latin America; South Korea (fifty years ago was a poor agricultural society, developed into one of the world's largest economies and has experimented with democratic institutions); Mexico (dramatic economic growth began in 1980s because of its abundance of oil)
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What five ways may economic development be measured in? How are they specifically measured for LDCs and MDCs? Where do newly industrializing countries always fall?
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GDP Per Capita (MDCs > $20,000; LDCs < $1000); types of jobs (MDCs have most workers in tertiary sector, LDCs have most workers in the primary sectors); worker productivity (MDCs have more productive workers and access to more machines, tools, and equipment, LDCs rely more on human and animal power); Access to raw materials (development requires this access to transform into useful products, energy (oil, coal, etc.) necessary for factories); availability of consumer goods (MDCs have money for nonessentials like cars, telephones, and televisions and production of those are vital to the economy, economy growth in LDCs is limited by their inability to afford these products)
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What country has the highest value added?
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More Developed Countries (MDCs)
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What is one reason why the industrial revolution began in England?
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the country's abundance of coal
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What does economic development change?
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demographic characteristics like life expectancy, birth rates, and death rates
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What was the modernization model? Who created it? Explain how it diffused.
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Britain was the first to develop its industry; Industrial Revolution was caused by prosperity, trade connections, inventions, and natural resources; the cultural environment of Western Europe favored change (Max Weber); model diffused all over Europe and the U.S; discourages people from adopting new technologies to raise their standard of living
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Explain the dependency theory. Who created it? What was its effect?
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puts primary responsibility for global poverty on rich nations; economic development of many countries is blocked by industrialized nations exploiting them; outgrowth of Marxism; problems must be addressed not by westernization but by establishing independence; reaction was lots of countries' experimentation with socialism to nationalize industry and narrow the gap between the rich and the poor
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When did all colonies technically gain independence? Why didn't this help a lot?
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late 20th century; political liberation has not translated to economic health
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What are the first two stages of modernization? Explain them.
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Traditional (lives built around families, local communities and religious beliefs, live lives similar to ancestors, limited resources, subsistence farmers); Take-off (experimentation with producing goods for trading profit begins, experiences similar to Industrial Revolution, sustained growth holds, urbanization increases, technological and production breakthroughs occur, greater individualism, a willingness to take risk, desire for material goods take hold, often at the expense of traditional customs)
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What are the third and fourth stages of modernization? Explain them.
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Drive to technological maturity (economic growth is widely accepted, people try to attain higher living standards, economy diversifies, people can afford some luxuries, people miss local community life, poverty is reduced, material goods are much more common, cities grow, modernization appears evident at core, population growth decreases as children are more educated and in school, international trade expands); High mass consumption (economic development raises living standards, mass production encourages consumption of industrial products, luxuries become necessities, high incomes, majority of workers in service sector of economy)
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Describe the modernization theory.
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high-income countries can help poorer countries by encouraging them to control population growth, increase food production, and take advantages of industrial technology
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What are some critiques of the modernization theory?
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it is a justification for capitalist systems to continue to exploit non-capitalist countries; it has not occurred in poor countries; fails to recognize that rich countries often block paths to development for poor countries; causes of poverty lie in poor countries alone (blaming victims for their own problems)
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Why is it harder for poor countries to reach industrialization?
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they must rise from a position of weakness
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Who was Immanuel Wallerstein?
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first to explain economic development in 1974 using the model of the capitalist world economy; traced economic equality back to the colonial era when Europeans first took advantage of the world's wealth; said that the world economy benefits rich countries and harms others by making them dependent on the rich countries
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What did Immanuel Wallerstein develop? Give some examples.
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country classification; core- rich, fuel the world's economy, take raw materials around the world and channel wealth to North America, Europe, Australia, and Japan through worldwide multinational corporations; periphery- low-income countries, support rich countries by providing cheap labor and a large market for industrial products; semi-periphery (in-between, exert more power than peripheral countries but are still dominated to some degree by core countries
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Describe the dependency theory.
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emphasizes the idea that no country develops in isolation because the global economy shapes the destiny of all nations
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What are some critiques of the dependency theory?
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it wrongly treats wealth as a zero-sum commodity as if no on gets richer without someone else getting poorer; wealth is created through ambition, hard work, and new uses of technology so that no country blocks others from success; places too much blame on rich countries that have a long history of supporting economies of nations such as India, South Korea, and Japan through foreign investments that foster economic growth; it ignores cultural factors in poor countries that discourage economic growth like family and tradition; corrupt national leaders may also result in poverty
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What is the self-sufficiency model? Who created it? Give a specific example within a country that used this and had a problem with it.
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encourages LDCs to isolate fledging business from competition of large international corporations; LDCs can only escape global inequalities by shielding local businesses from trade in the international market and encouraging internal growth; promoted by placing barriers limiting outside goods; may have taxes or quotas or licensing required; many Indian companies grew under this model; problem was that businesses had little incentive to improve quality and pricing with government subsidies and import protection so that products were often inferior to and more expensive than those on the international market; high complex bureaucracy also restricted business growth
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What was life like before the industrial revolution?
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there were silk factories in China and metal workshops in India; goods all over the world were superior to those in Europe; most work was done by hand; power was provided by water and wind; early Britain factories controlled by water running downslope
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What two things were invented that acted as the catalyst for the Industrial Revolution? How did they start it? What role did Britain/England play in the start?
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steam engine (invented by James Watt, allowed more flexible use of energy to drive new machines, could pump water much more efficiently than wind mills); new methods for iron smelting that transformed coal into high-carbon coke; textile industry first benefited from these inventions; British factories started demanding more raw materials; Britain's stable government and coal abundance helped spread new technology to other industries like transportation and communications; England opened the first railroad in 1825 and expanded its growing industrial power as steam-powered vessels began crossing the Atlantic
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How did new industries during the Industrial Revolution affect Europe's landscape?
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cities grew dramatically (especially in the Midlands of north-central England where a belt of major coalfields went from west to east); another industrial belt formed around some coalfields from northern France, southern Belgium, and the Netherlands, through Germany to Poland; iron ore was found here so economic activity developed accordingly
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Why was Western Europe so industrially successful? How and when did industry diffuse?
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France, Britain, and the Low Countries had the ability to access resources around the world through their colonial empires; skilled laborers; established trade routes to help exchange new products; by the end of the 20th century had diffused through northern Spain, southern Scandinavia, and Ukraine; across the Atlantic to North America
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How/when/where/by whom was the first U.S textile mill built?
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in Rhode Island in 1791 by Samuel Slater ( a former worker in an English factory)
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What industries developed in the late 19th century? Where were some U.S markets for products made from these? Where and why was a great port developed?
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iron and steel; Boston to Washington D.C; New York City (great port, had a great natural harbor for break-of-bulk from ships to trains to trucks and vice versa)
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How did industrialization factor into World War I? How did oil and natural gas change this?
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only areas settled by Europeans and Australia were industrialized which gave Europe and the eastern U.S a huge advantage; use of oil and natural gas increased because industrialized nations needed these to run power plants, machinery, cars, airplanes, and ships; oil and natural gas also became common forms of energy for heating houses and providing household conveniences like hot water and cooking stoves; this increased need for energy meant industrialized nations turning to foreign countries (like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Russia, China, Mexico, Venezuela, and Nigeria) to host their multi-national companies that have established production centers within their borders; most oil-rich countries signed agreements with these companies that allow a lot of the wealth to return to the U.S and Europe producing international tensions between developing countries and the established industrial powers
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What is the location theory? How does the location develop?
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explains the locational pattern of economic activities by identifying factors that influence this pattern; primary industry develops around the location of natural resources (like the industrial belt in the British Midlands); as transportation improves secondary industry develops which is less dependent on resource location
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What does the location of secondary industries depend on?
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Variable costs- energy, labor, and transportation is less expensive in some areas than others, encouraging industries to develop Friction of distance- cost usually goes up the farther the distance of transport from source to factory; at some point distance becomes too great for practical transportation Distance decay- because of friction of distance; industries are more likely to serve markets of nearby places than those of places farther away; as distance increases business activity decreases until it becomes impractical to do business
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How do places in the U.S contrast each other? India?
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in the U.S "high-tech" cities like Austin, Texas create wealth that contrasts to rural areas or "rust belt" industrial areas that provide few job opportunities for young people; with most jobs in the service sector people move to areas with those jobs and leave the periphery behind and with even fewer resources than before; in India high-tech jobs (often outsourced by Western companies) are growing rapidly in Urban centers contrasting periphery areas that still adhere to traditional customs and occupations
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Who was Alfred Weber?
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wrote "Theory of Location of Industries" in 1909; developed model for location of secondary industries; model is example of location theory explaining why economic activity is patterned as it is; identified points for particular inter-related activities (like manufacturing plants, mines, and markets); developed least cost theory that explained location of industries
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What three factors were included in the least cost theory?
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Transportation (cost of moving materials to the factory and finished products to the market; truck transportation is cheapest over short distances, railroads over medium distances, and ships over long distances, must counter in terminal costs that are least expensive for trucks and most expensive for ships); Labor; Agglomeration (allows companies to share talents, services, and facilities, explains location of industry, excessive amounts may lead to an increase in labor and transportation costs leading to deglomeration- the exodus of business from a crowded area)
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What has Weber's model been criticized for? Explain the substitution principle.
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being too inflexible especially in considering costs over time; substitution principle (suggests that business owners can juggle expenses as long as labor, land rents, transportation, and other costs don't all go up at one time, allows a business to be profitable within a larger area
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What factors make the distribution of industry uneven? Give an example.
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historical patterns of development and colonization, current power relations among nations, geographical context; industrialization patterns in Europe are still based on the diffusion of industry from its origins in Britain across to France and Germany
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What are situation factors?
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have to do with transportation; the farther something has to be carried, the higher the cost, so a manufacturer tries to relocate a factory as close as possible to both buyers and sellers
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What is a bulk-reducing industry? Give some examples.
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locate factories close to raw materials because raw materials are heavier and bulkier than finished products; North American copper industry; U.S steel industry locating factories around iron and coal deposits; more iron ore is coming from Canada and Venezuela so steel factories have moved to the East and West coasts away from previous plants in the Midwest
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What is a bulk-gaining industry? Give some examples (generally speaking). What does footloose refer to? Give a general example.
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factory locations are determined by accessibility to the market; most canned food and beverage products, weight is gained (especially soda because of water weight added); often harder to ship out of factories so automobile assembly plants are generally located near large metropolitan areas; footloose = a firm that is neither resource nor market oriented (ex: both parts and finished products of a computer are expensive so that transportation costs are only a small part of total production costs
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What is a single-market manufacturer? Give an example.
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cluster near markets; products need to be close to large urban markets; clothing manufacturers shipping to New York City
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What are site factors? Where do different types of businesses like to locate and why?
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particular to a geographic location and focus on varying costs of land, labor, and capital; modern factories located in suburban and rural areas and not in center cities where land costs are prohibitive for the space necessary for production; usually more efficient operating on one or two levels; businesses may locate in skyscrapers because of land costs in center cities; may locate in areas with mild climates for year-round recreational activities; some executives may locate in areas with good access to cultural or sports events
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What are labor-intensive industries? Give some examples. How has this factor influenced the world? Give an example of when a financial situation has influenced the world.
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choose locations with skilled workers where labor costs are low; fiber-spinning, weaving (textile industries); clothing manufacturers are now moving to China and other Asian countries where labor is cheaper; in the late 20th century high tech countries clustered in Silicon Valley partly because banks sometimes offered large incentive packages to persuade businesses to locate within their city limits
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What are primary industrial regions? Give some examples. What are secondary industrial regions? Give some examples.
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areas of the largest agglomeration of industry (primary); Western and Central Europe, Eastern North America, Russia and the Ukraine, Eastern Asia; agglomeration is somewhat less but still significant (secondary); Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, Nigeria, coastal areas, Ganges River, Malaysia, southern Australia
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What happened to Europe after World War I?
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industry expanded rapidly; the Ruhr River in Germany became Europe's greatest industrial complex (since it combined proximity to large markets, accessible transportation, and abundant natural resources to stunt its growth); products of heavy industry including tanks and weapons for Hitlers' armies were pouring out of the industry in the 1930s; German industry became specialized as Saxony produced optical equipment, cameras, textiles, and ceramics (products of light manufacture)
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What effect did World War II have on Europe?
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destroyed the German industrial base and damaged industrial infrastructure all over the continent; American aid to new factories has helped rebuild a lot and incorporating new technologies has helped revive European economies overall
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What effect did World War I and II have on North America? Name some current North American manufacturing districts.
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U.S emerged as world's strongest industrial power by mid 20th century when the war weakened all of Europe's economies; production of war materials bolstered its developing industrial economy; North America had a major Manufacturing Belt in southeastern Canada (Windsor, Toronto, Montreal) and one in the northeastern U.S (Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pennsylvania, Great Lakes); both belts meet in two horseshoe-shaped zones around western ends of Lake Ontario and Erie; Southeastern (manufacturing) district from Birmingham to Richmond (Birmingham area produces iron and steel, Atlanta to Richmond produces cotton, tobacco, and furniture); Oklahoma to Dallas-Fort Worth area, Houston, and New Orleans (originally for meat packing and flour milling, now for oil industry); northern California (San Francisco), southern California (L.A to San Diego); Pacific northwest (Portland, Oregon through Seattle and Vancouver in Canada)
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How did the Industrial Revolution affect Russia and others? Talk about a specific body of water's influence and the influence of a specific railway.
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Russia became the Soviet Union in the 20th century; Ukraine produced much of the country's coal and it grew into one of the world's largest manufacturing complexes by the mid 20th century; other areas grew around Moscow and Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) which provided large markets for industrial products; most manufacturing in the 1930s followed the Volga River (area that combined accessibility to raw materials and ease of transportation by river); after World War II dams were constructed along the river that made its electrical power plentiful; canals linked the river to Moscow and the Don River which made it easy to transport raw materials including oil and natural gas; other regions in Russia follow the Trans-Siberian Railroad that connects the western cities across southern Siberia all the way to the pacific coastline
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How did the industrial revolution affect Japan? What was the Meiji Restoration
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first country in Eastern Asia to industrialize partly because it was located in the northern Pacific Ocean and out of path of most 19th century imperialist powers and it was never colonized; economic development began with the Meiji Restoration ( a remarkable government-sponsored campaign for modernization and colonization); modernized industries, organized armed forces, and transformed education and transportation systems to follow the western model; established colonies to provide raw materials that weren't in their homeland; major post-industrial society by the 1980s; Kanto plain was dominant region of industrialization; included Tokyo ad headquarters in order to be near government decision makers; has three other key industrial districts each surrounding major metropolitan areas
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Who were the "Four Tigers"?
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first to challenge Japan's economic dominance over East Asia; South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore (from East and Southeast Asia); Britain transferred control of Hong Kong to China in 1997; used export-oriented industrialization to directly integrate economies into global economy by concentrating on economic production to find a place in international markets
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What is the "product life cycle"? Give a specific example of how this pattern has been followed.
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first an innovator country produces something new; next that country moves on to other innovations; other countries think of ways to make the original product better and cheaper and export it back to the innovator country; Asian countries have used this with automobiles and electronics in their trade with the U.S
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How has China industrialized? What was its earliest heartland?
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been a political power for a long time; major industrial expansion began in the mid 20th century under communist leaders; earliest industrial heartland was Northeast District in Manchuria, centered on the region's coal and iron deposits near the city of Shenyang; other major industrial areas include Beijing, Shanghai, and Hong Kong; successfully challenged Japan for economic and political leadership in East Asia by early 21st century
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What is the pacific rim? Special economic zones?
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countries that border the Pacific ocean on their Eastern shores; recently have experienced industrialization; foreign investment is allowed and capitalistic ventures are encouraged
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What was the world's secondary industrial region?
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lie south of the world's primary industrial region; developed later; industrial center not as large; Southeast Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam), Northern Africa (around Cairo), South Africa (around Johannesburg), Mexico and Brazil (have manufacturing industries); manufacturing triangle between Sao Paulo, Rio de Janiero, and Belo Horizonte; industry developed from Mexico City to Guadalajara
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What is maquiladora?
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created in 1960s; manufacturing zone located in northern Mexico just south of border with U.S; produces goods primarily for U.S consumers; companies have contracts and plants in the zone with district benefits
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What was North American Free Trade Agreement?
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NAFTA; a treaty signed in 1995 by Mexico, the U.S, and Canada that eliminated barriers to free trade among the three coutnries
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What has the U.S been criticized for?
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avoiding employment and environmental regulations imposed within the borders of the U.S; hiring young women for low pay; no benefits; work in buildings that are environmentally questionable
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What has been happening to Mexican maquiladoras lately?
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decreasing; by 8.2% in 10 years; 3000 still operate on border; provide more than $51 billion for Mexico
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How has industrialization in India worked?
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expanding as a result of recent government policies in Urban areas; no major oil reserves but a lot of hydroelectric potential and large coal and iron ore deposits; large labor force and a geographical location midway between Europe and the Pacific Rim; computer software jobs are rapidly growing around Bangalore and Hyderabadi; Western companies are outsourcing to India (like "call centers", Indian's with good English-speaking skills talk with customers half way across the globe); in the tertiary sector mainly
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What was potentially problematic about NAFTA?
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Mexico's lower standard of living and wage structure; more manufacturers are locating in Mexico to take advantage of low wages leaving many Canadians and Americans jobless; firms may move to Mexico to avoid costly government regulations surrounding pollution
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What happens to the Mexican Maquilladora and why?
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jobs are being lost to places with even lower wages; China's wages are 1/2 Mexico's at $1/hr
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What challenges do some More Developed Countries face?
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protection from new competitors; trading blocs create a lot more competition
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What is a trading bloc? Name the three most important ones.
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a conglomeration of trade among countries within a region; North America (NAFTA, negotiating with other latin American countries to extend trading block to the Western Hemisphere); European Union (Bulgaria and Romania added in 2007), even non-members (Switzlerland, Sweden, etc.) were dependent on trade with members; East Asia (no formal organization of states, Japanese play huge role)
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What are used between trading blocs. Give a specific example.
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taxes, lengthy permit procedures, quotas; Japanese government maintains quote on number of cars Japanese can export to U.S
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Where are transnational corporations apparent?
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Most headquarted in the U.S but others are in Japan or Europe
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Where is EU industrialization concentrated? What about specifically in those countries? Give another example.
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Germany, France, U.K; Paris is much wealthier than the rest of France which creates a lot of inequality between the two; eastern part of Germany drags behind the western part; Mexico lags behind the U.S and Canada.
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What is deindustrialization and where is it present? Why do people think it exists?
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employment in manufacturing has fallen dramatically in MDCs; jobs in tertiary sector have increased; U.S, Europe, Japan, Four Tigers; some believe it is a result of globalization of markets; fast growth of labor intensive manufacturing industries is displacing jobs in advanced economies; others believe that the advances in the service sector are most likely to encourage the growth of living standards in advanced economies in the future
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What are some problems Less Developed Countries struggle with?
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Distance from markets (industrializing countries have invested scarce resources in constructing and subsidizing transport facilities like airports, docks, and ships); Inadequate infrastructure (support services often lacking, direct support like transportation, communications, and equipment protection, fewer schools for job education); Competition with existing manufacturers in other countries (control exerted by transnational corporations headquarted in MDCs doing business globally)
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What is the new international division of labor and what's bad about it?
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splitting up low-cost labor in LDCs and highly skilled jobs in MDCs; keeps global inequalities in place, prevents transfer of wealth
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What became the leading energy source in North America and Western Europe during the Industrial Revolution? What effects did this change have?
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coal instead of wood; relived deforestation; increased likelihood that coal and eventually petroleum and natural gas would be depleted as a natural resource
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Explain the current energy crisis. How are people trying to solve this problem?
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petroleum is being consumed at a much more rapid rate than it is being found and world demand is increasing rapidly especially with wealth in China and India; off-shore drilling (extracting petroleum underneath sea floors), considering attempting to remove oil from underneath frozen tundra in Siberia
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Discuss the largest oil spill ever recorded.
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Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010; marine; still reeping effects and will for a long time
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What percent of fossil fuels to MDCs consume? What do some estimate/
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1/4 for 1/4 of the world's population; need heated homes and more cars; energy to run plants; some estimate that LDCs may consume half or more of the world's energy
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What are the top five consumers of oil (in order)?
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U.S; China; Japan; Germany; Russia
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What do critics of sustainable development say?
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economic development is no longer stable today despite abundant natural resources
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Describe the four ways humans respond to environmental issues. Give some examples of each.
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Prevention (some government policies encourage environmental destruction including low livestock grazing fees, cheap gasoline, or company access to government lands and forests; Chinese One-Child-Policy is preventing over-use of natural resources through limiting population growth); Technological change (installing pollution-capturing filters for industrial runoff and recycling of industrial wastes); Mitigation (damage is undone or reduced once it has occurred; chemical spills may be cleaned up, lakes may be deacidified, fish ladders may be added to dams); Compensation (if workers successfully sue companies in government-sponsored courts for damages done to careless treatment of the environment companies will be encouraged to avoid those damages)
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What is global warming?
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the increase in earth's temperature caused primarily by the burning of fossil fuels; earth is warmed by sunlight that passes through atmosphere, strikes surface, and is converted to heat
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What is the greenhouse effect?
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an anticipated warming of earth's surface that could melt the polar ice caps and raise the levels of oceans enough to destroy coastal cities; when fossil fuels are burned CO2 is released into the atmosphere trapping some of the heat leaving the surface heading back to space
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What are some potential consequences of global warming?
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massive migrations inland; countless economic and political disasters
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Describe acid rain. Give some potential consequences. Where is it especially common?
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sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide released into the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels where it traps some heat leaving the surface heading towards space; pollutants combine with water vapor and get into lakes and streams; leads to corrosion of buildings and monuments, fish kills stunted growth of forests, loss of crops; very apparent in Russia and Ukraine; aging factories in Russia still emit acid rain causing chemicals; U.S and Western Europe have government policies with positive results on pollution prevention
