ANT2511 Final
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Anthropology
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Study of humankind, all people and all times
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Cultural anthropology
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Study of present day people
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Archeology
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focuses in material remains and the processes behind them.
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Artifacts
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Are material objects from past such as weapons, ceramics.
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Linguistic Anthropology
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Studies the construction and use of language.
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Sociolinguistics
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Investigates social context of language
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Physical or biological anthropology
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Studies present and past human biology. Deals with the evolution of and variation among human beings and their relatives.
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Anthropology approaches
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1. Biocultural approach: Humans are a combination of inherited (biological) traits and cultural (learned) traits. 2. Holistic, broad or comparative approach
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Biocultural Evolution
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Biology makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution.
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Physical Anthropology
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The study of human biological evolution and human biocultural variation.
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Physical Anthropology Key Terms
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1. each person is a product of evolutionary history 2. Each person is a product of an individual life history
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Hominins and Hominids
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Members of the evolutionary lineage that includes ourselves, modern homo sapiens. Habitually walking bipedally (on two feet) is a critical feature of the hominins.
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Paleoanthropology
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Interdiciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominins. Studies human origins and evolution.
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Primatology
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The study of the living nonhuman primates.
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Primates
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Group of mammas in order primates.
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Forensic Anthropology
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A specialty of physical anthropology. Often identify skeletons and often help in criminal investigations.
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Theory
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Set of hypotheses that have been tested, evaluated, and generally accepted. If a theory proves absolutely true, it become scientific law.
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Darwin's main contribution
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The synthesis of ideas with personal observations of the natural world.
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Darwin's revolutionary hypothesis
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Natural selection was the primary mechanism of evolution. Displaced the idea of static species in defined natural order in favor of variation as a prominent characteristic of populations.
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Mendel's Observations
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1. A discrete physical unit was responsible for transmission of traits (now called a gene). 2. traits in the pea plants did not blend (plants were either tall or short.) These alternate forms of a gene are now called alleles. 3. Alleles are either dominant or recessive.
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Genes
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Basic unit inheritance. Sequence of DNA on chromosome, coded produce specific protein.
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Alleles
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One or more alternate forms of gene. Chemically alternative versions of the same gene.
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Mendelian Inheritance
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Basic principles transmission genetic material.
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Genotype
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Genetic makeup an organism
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Phenotype
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Physical appearance of genotype, can be influenced by environment.
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Evolutionary Synthesis
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The study of populations and the causes of evolution.
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Modern Synthesis
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Or Evolutionary Synthesis, the combination of Darwin's theory of evolution and Mendel's theory of heredity. Includes study of four cases of evolution. Focus now on populations or genre pools.
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Population Genetics
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Studies changes in gene frequency in gene pool and effects of changes on adaptation and evolution.
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Natural Selection
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Principle based on Darwin's conclusion that individuals with advantageous characteristics will survive and reproduce in higher numbers. Acts only on already existing genes.
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Mutation
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Introduces new genetic material into the gene pool.
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Gene Flow
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Refers to the spread of genetic material from one population to another.
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Genetic Drift
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Is random chance in the frequency of alleles. Random changes in allele frequency over time.
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DNA
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Double stranded molecule, that provides genetic code for an organism. The BLUEPRINT OF LIFE.
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Cells
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Are the basic unit of life for all organisms.
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Types of organisms
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1. Prokayote (one cell) 2. Eukaryote (many cells)
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Types of Cells
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1. Somatic (body) cells 2. Gamete (reproductive) cells
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Nuclear DNA
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Contained within the nucleus of a cell. Makes up chromosomes.
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Nucleotide
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Each unit of ladder (rung and uprights)
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Mitochondrial DNA
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Outside of nucleus. Inherited from the mother.
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DNA function
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One function of the DNA molecule is replication. DNA makes identical copies of itself (for cell division)
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Homologus
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Chromosomes in somatic cells occur in matching or homologous pairs.
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Autosomes
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The non-sex chromosomes in somatic sells.
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Sex Chromosomes
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The pair of chromosomes that determine biological sex.
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Mitosis
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Production of identical somatic cells. DNA replication followed by one cell division.
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Meiosis
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Production of gametes (sex cells). One DNA replication followed by two cell divisions.
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Gametes
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Are haploid (half the number of chromosomes).
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DNA function
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Producing proteins.
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Proteins
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Chemicals that make up tissues.
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Structural Proteins
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Responsible for physical characteristics.
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Regulatory Proteins
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Responsible for functions: enzymes, hormones, antibodies.
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Coding DNA
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Sequence of DNA coded to produce a specific protein.
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Noncoding DNA
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Does not produce specific proteins.
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Structural Genes
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Responsible for body structure.
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Regulatory Genes
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Turn other genes on and off.
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Homeotic or Hox Genes
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Regulatory gene for organism's form.
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Locus
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Each gene has a specific physical location.
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Polymorphism
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Presence of two or more separate phenotypes for a certain gene (train) in the population.
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Homozygous
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Chemically identical alleles are termed.
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Heterozygous
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Chemically different alleles.
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Polygenic Variation
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Much of genetics is based on the \"one gene, one protein\" model.
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Darwin
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Discovery that phenotypes change over time.
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Mendel
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Research of Inheritance.
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Population Genetics
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Studies change over time (or the lack of it) in gene pools. Specifically, studies change in frequency of alleles (genes).
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Microevolution
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Studies small changes in allele frequencies over few generations.
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Macroevolution
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Studies evolution of new species.
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Mathematical Model
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Used to study genetic change in populations.
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Forces of Evolution
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- Mutation - Natural Selection - Genetic Drift - Genetic Flow
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Mutation
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The only source of new alleles. Mutation is the only source of new genetic information.
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Founder Effect
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A special kind of genetic drift. A small segment of a population becomes reproductively isolated from the larger population.
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Gene Flow
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Spread of genes across Population Boundaries.
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Human Variation
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Geographic Cline, Not racial categories.
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Cline
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Gradual change in characteristic from one population to another. Specific traits following a geographical continuum.
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Factors influencing the human body's growth and development
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1. Genetic (DNA blueprint) 2. External (environmental and events)
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Stages of Human Growth Cycle
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1. Prenatal Stage 2. Postnatal Stage 3. Adult Stage
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Evolution of Human Life History
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Food, sex, and strategies for survival and reproduction.
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Behaviors for survival and adaptive success
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1. Food acquisition 2. Reproduction Human acquire these in context of culture and society. Humans created social institutions - kinship and marriage
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Life History
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Anthropologist interested in the relationship between human's sociocultural behaviors and evolution of human life history. Such as human prolong childhood and prolonger postmenopausal survival.
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Grandmothering
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Part of human adaptive success. Longevity may have selective advantage in humans.
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Levels of adaptation to the environment
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- Genetic - Developmental - Physiological (acclimatization) - Behavioral (culture)
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Adaptations
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All adaptations have purpose of maintaining internal homeostasis.
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Heat Stress and Thermoregulation
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Human body attempts to maintain core body temperature under hot conditions 1. Vasodilation 2. Sweating. Humans have strong ability to adjust to heat.
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Body Shape and adaptation to Heat Stress
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Surface area, limbs Adapts to climate: 1. Bergmann's rule: surface area 2. Allen's rule: limbs
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Cold Stress and Thermoregulation
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Humans maintain body temperature at cold extremes. 1. Vasoconstriction: decrease blood vessels diameter 2. Shivering
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UV Radiation exposure
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Best predictor of skin color. The body needs UV radiation to synthesize vitamin D.
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Melanin
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Main determinant of Skin color. Protects against folate depletion.
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Vitamin D
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Crucial in calcium absorption, bone mineralization.
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Folate
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Essential in DNA synthesis and repair
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Hypoxia
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Humans suffer from hypoxia \"mountain sickness\"(lack of available oxygen) at high altitudes.
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Macronutrients
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Includes fat, carbohydrates, and proteins body requires to live and function normally.
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Micronutrients
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Essential substances including minerals or vitamins in small amounts to maintain normal functioning.
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Human Nutrition Today
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Most populations are undernourished. Governments had made grains more available but less diversity. New focus on micronutrients (such as vitamins).
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Workload Adaptation
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Bone mass increases where needed. Decreases with lack of activity. Takes place in skeletal function and bone strength.
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Arboreal Adaptation
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- Skeletal - Touch - Vision Primates have a versatile skeletal structure
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Vision
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Primates enhanced sense of vision. Eyes rotated to the front of the head. Primates have reduced reliance on senses of smell and hearing.
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Taxonomic Approaches
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1. Anatomical approach: is traditional, anatomical classification of a \"level\" based on adaptation 2. Genetic classification: is now focus for many taxonomist.
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Cladistic Categories
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1. Hominids: Traditional name or \"family\" for humans and ancestors. Did not include apes. New cladistics approach expands \"hominid\"family to include the traditional \"great apes\" with humans. 2. Hominins: now used for humans and human ancestors in the genus \"homo\"
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Prosimians
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Among the oldest living primates.
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New World Monkeys
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(platyrrhines) South America, Mexico. - Prehensile tail.
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Old World Monkeys
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(Catarrhines) Africa and Asia. - Terrestrial and arboreal habitats. - Most diverse and successful. - Lesser Apes: gibbon, siamang - Skilled brachiators
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Humans
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Many differences related to bipedal locomotion. - Only obligate bipedal primate - Skeletal indicators Bipedal locomotion - Foreman magnum under skull - Pelvis- Shorter and wider - Limbs- Longer legs
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Social Behavior
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Social signals establish and maintain social relationships. Social Behavior in primates enhance survival and reproduction. Social behavior may be maintained by natural selection.
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Primate Residence Patterns
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Divided according to the number of adult males and females present in the group.
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Primate Reproductive Strangles
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Males: - Compete for access to females - Affects male body and canine size Females: - Compete with each other for resources to support young
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Altruistic behaviors
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Alarm calls, grooming, food sharing, and caregiving. Part of kin selection. Behaviors related to living with relatives who share genetic material.
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Vocal Communication
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Fundamental behavior in primates. All primates produce vocalizations serving different functions.
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Vocalizations
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Range from very soft to very loud. Transmission of information over short (soft) and long (loud) distances. Indicate a primate's emotional state. Give the listeners information about the world around the caller.
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Primate Language Studies
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Demonstrated that great apes: lack the ability to produce human speech. Possess rudimentary cognitive abilities necessary to understand human speech.
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Fossils
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Remains of organisms chemically changed into rock or partially.
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Taphonomy
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Study of what happens to an organism's remains after death. Describes circumstances for fossilization.
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Eras in Earth's History
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Describe the evolution of major life-forms: a. Paleozoic b. Mesozoic c. Cenozoic
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Stratigraphy
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Relative age of layers.
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Cultural dating
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Uses changes in material culture (such as stone tools) to establish a chronology
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Absolute (numerical) age
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Determined through methods that result in a numerical time scale.
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Dendrochronology
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Counts the rings of trees; each ring marks one year of growth. The radiometric evolution of the dating clock.
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Amino Acid Dating
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Decay of protein molecules.
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Paleomagnetic dating
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changes in the earth's magnetic field to date rock up to 5 mya.
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Thermoluminescence
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Genetic Dating. The \"molecular rock\"measures changes in DNA over time.
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Temperature
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Temperature drives climate, which is linked to biology and chemistry.
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Arboreal Hypothesis
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Primate traits such as grasping hands and binocular vision were adaptations to life in the trees. Moving from the ground to the trees caused selective pressures that resulted in the ancestral primate.
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Visual predation hypothesis
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Proposed that primate traits evolved in response to preying on insects and other small creatures. The exploitation of small prey resulted in the primate suite of adaptations.
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Agiosperm radiation hypothesis
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Proposed that primate traits were a response to the development of fruit-bearing angiosperm plants. Fruit is a new source. Visual acuity in response to fruit and flowers.
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Proconsulids
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The miocene deposits in Africa provide evidence for a group of primates called Proconsulids.
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Proconsul
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Is the best known of ten genera.
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The Dryopithecids
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Miocine Apes in Europe
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Sivapithecids
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Apes in Asia.
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Climate Shifts and Habitat Changes
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Late Miocene Apes disappeared in Europe. Climate changes occurred during this time in Europe, Africa , and Asia. Tropical forests changed to cooler, drier mixed woodlands and grasslands. Disappearance of fruit resources commonly exploited by the apes.
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Hominid
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Best understood as having two obligate behaviors, bipedal locomotion and non-honing chewing. Preceded speech and material culture by several million years. Large brains, speech, and material culture help define humans today but were not attributes of earliest hominids.
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Bipedal Locomotion
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Getting around on two feet. Bipedalism was foundational behavior of the Hominidae (not larger brain and human intelligence as assumed earlier). Walking on two limbs (with associated skeletal changes). Evolved before larger brain size.
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Characteristics Associated with Bipedalism
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1. Foreman magnum- bottom of skull (human head on top of body) 2. Legs longer
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Nonhonong Chewing
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No slicing, mainly grinding. Second major difference between living apes and humans. Lack of projecting canine Ape's dentition uses honing (wearing) for sharpening canines.
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Distinguishing feature of Hominidae
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Anatomical complexes associated with 1. Acquiring and transporting food (locomotion) 2. Chewing food (mastication)
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Charles Darwin's Hunting Hypothesis
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Bipedalism had freed the hands for carrying weapons. Tool production and use essential for development of human intelligence. New evidence shows this is not to be the case.
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Patchy Forest Hypothesis
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Human origins and bipedalism related to the greater efficiency in moving on two limbs rather than four. Bipedalism arose in areas where forests were fragmented and food resources also became scattered. As forests fragmented, bipedalism freed the hands to pick up food allowing for both tree and ground food resources to be exploited.
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Provisioning Hypothesis
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Freeing the hands was important in allowing males to assist females more efficiently in procuring food; thus \"provisioning\" acted as a form of sexual competition among males and females.
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First Hominids: Australopithecus
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Only in last few years that hominids older than 4 mya discovered. These hominids predate the better known australopithecines. The pre-australopithecines fossils in north-central and east Africa. Fill-in gap between late Miocene ape and first hominids.
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Pre-Australopithecus
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Only a pre-australopithecus fossils. Apelike in many attributes. First recognizable ancestors of lineage leading to humans. NO DATES.
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Australopithecines
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Hundreds of fossils. Nine or more species from one genus Australopithecus.
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New Hominid
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A new hominid Homo habilis appears. A gracile hominid with larger brain and reduced chewing complex.
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Homo Habilis
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First species of the genus. Compared to Australopithecus: - Homo habilis bigger brain - Smaller chewing complex - Body plan similar to that of australopithecines (short in stature compared to the taller Homo Erectus which follows)
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Homo Erectus
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Early Homo goes global. Homo Erectus (and related) is next grade after early Homo such as Homo Habilis. Homo Erectus, a much taller hominid with larger brain. First Hominid out of Africa, Originated in Africa before spreading quickly.
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Evolution of Homo Erectus
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Compared to Homo Habilis. Homo Erectus larger body and large brain. Most significant reason for rapid increase in body size was likely increased to animal food (protein) from hunting. Homo Erectus stone tools.
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Acheulian tools
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of the lower paleolithic, Acheulian tools included hand-axes.
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Modern Humans
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What is so modern about modern humans? Skeletal traits, skull. Round, tall skull with vertical forehead, small brow ridges, small face and teeth.
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Postcranial Skeleton
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More gracile postcranial skeleton characteristic of modern humans. Some hominid skeletons have a mixture of archaic and modern traits.
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Out of Africa Hypothesis
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Modern Homo sapiens evolved in Africa, and then spread to Asia and Europe, where modern humans replaced the populations there.
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Multiregional Continuity
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The shift to modern humans took place regionally and did not involve replacement.
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Early Archaic Homo Sapiens
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Evolved out of earlier homo erectus populations.
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Late Archaic Homo Sapiens
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Neandertal is \"late archaic\". Follow the earlier archaic Homo sapiens
