Anatomy and Physiology Lecture #1 – Flashcards
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major themes of anatomy and physiology
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form and function, scientific method, human origins and adaptations
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Anatomy is...
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the study of form
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Ways of examining the human body
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inspection, palpation, auscultation, percussion
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inspection
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simply looking at the body's appearance
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palpation
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feeling a structure with the hands
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auscultation
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listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as breathing or a heartbeat
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percussion
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tapping on the body and listening to the sounds emitted
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cadaver dissection
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cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationship
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Anatomy and dissection BOTH mean
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cutting apart and dissection is essential for a deeper study of the body
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comparative anatomy
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study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences and to analyze evolutionary trends
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exploratory surgery
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open body and examine the inside...explore
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medical imaging
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viewing the inside of the body without surgery...radiology
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radiology
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a branch of medicine concerned with medical imaging
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gross anatomy
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study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye
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cytology
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study of structure and function of cells
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histology (microscopic anatomy)
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examination of tissues with a microscope
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histopathology
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the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
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ultrastructure
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refers to fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscope
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Physiology is....
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the study of function
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subdisciplines of physiology
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neurophysiology, endocrinology, pathophysiology
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neurophysiology
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function of the nervous system
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endocrinology
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physiology of the hormones
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pathophysiology
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mechanisms of disease
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comparative physiology
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limitations on human experimentation, this is the basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures
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Comparative physiology reveals....
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insight in the evolution of physiological systems, including solutions to survival in animals
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Scientific method
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refers less to observational procedures than to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one's observations and conclusions
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Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes
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philosophers who invented new habits of scientific thought, sought systematic way of seeking similarities, differences, and trends in nature and drawing useful generalizations from observable facts
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Governments of England and France established....
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academies of science, which still exist today
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science and scientific methods set....
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standards for facts and truth
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Scientific method is a combo of
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disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking and honest analysis of the facts
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inductive method described by
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Bacon
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inductive method works by
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making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations from them
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inductive method provides us with
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knowledge of anatomy
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Proof in science
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reliable observations, tested and confirmed repeatedly, not falsified by any credible observation
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In science, all truth is....
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tentative. "proof" beyond a reasonable doubt"
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Hyothetico-deductive method provides us with
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more physiological knowledge
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in the hypothetico-deductive knowledge the investigator...
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asks a question and formulates a hypothesis
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hypothesis
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an educated speculation or possible answer to the question
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characteristics of a good hypothesis
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consistent with what is already known and must be testable and possibly falsifiable with evidence
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falsifiability
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if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong
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From deductive reasoning you form
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a hypothesis and a prediction is made as a deduction (from general to specific)
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Hypothesis written as
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"if-then" statements, suggests a method for answering questions
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experimental design
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sample size, controls, psychosomatic effects
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sample size
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the number of subjects used in a study, controls for chance events and individual variation
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controls
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control group and treatment group, comparison of treated and untreated individuals
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psychosomatic effects
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effects of the subject's state of mind on his or her physiology, use of placebo in control group
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proper experimental design
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experimenter bias prevented with a double-blind study
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statistical testing allows evaluation of
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whether a result has occurred simply by chance
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probability value
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P value, chance received results by random chance alone
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Low p value means
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that we have significant evidence to reject null hypothesis of no difference
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low p value
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<0.05
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statistical testing provides
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statements of probability and a difference between control and test subjects that was not random variation
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peer review
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critical evaluation by other experts in the field
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peer review done
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prior to funding of publication
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peer review done by using
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verification and repeatability of results
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peer review ensures
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honesty, objectivity, and quality in science
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Facts laws and theories
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know these
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law of nature
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a description; laws do not govern the universe
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hypothesis is what scientists use as what most people consider a
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theory
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evolution
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fact
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theory is about
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the main mechanisms behind evolution
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scientific fact
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information that can be independently verified by a trained person
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law of nature
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generalization about the predictable way matter and energy behave
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law of natures result from...
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inductive reasoning and repeated observations
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law of natures are written as
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verbal statements or mathematical formulae
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Theory
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an explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses
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a theory does what?
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confirms what we know and suggests direction for further study
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human origins and adaptations
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charles darwin
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Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
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book that shook the world
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the Descent of Man
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human evolution book
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theory of natural selection
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how species originate and change through time, changed view or "our origin, our nature and our place in the universe", increases understanding of human form and function
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Evolution, selection and adaptation
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know this stuff
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evolution
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change in genetic composition of population of organisms over time
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evolution definition 2 key point
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evolution is the change in frequency of any one allele gene from one generation to the next
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examples of evolution
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development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, appearance of new strains of AIDs virus
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natural selection
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some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over their competitors, they produce more offspring and the advantage passes on, selection pressures influence natural selection
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selection pressures
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natural forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than other
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selection pressure examples
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climate change, predators, disease, competition, and the availability of food...there is a genetic basis
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variants
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have to have a genetic base
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trait forms or variants in a population
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we can start to see an increase in a population if selection is leading to differential survival and reproduction
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adaptations
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features of an organism's anatomy, physiology, or behavior that have evolved in response to these selection pressures and enable the organisms to survive and reproduce better than those without the features
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model
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animal species selected for research on a particular problem
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animal relations
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closest relative- chimpanzee. difference of only 1.6% in DNA structure...chimps differ from gorillas by 2.3%
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study of evolutionary relationships
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help us chose animals for biomedical research (the animal model)...rats and mice used extensively due to issues involved with using chimpanzees
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vestiges of human evolution
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vestigial organs are remnants of organs that apparently were better developed and more functional in the ancestors of a species and generally serve little or no purpose
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examples of vestigial organs
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piloerector muscle and auricularis (appendix)
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vestigial organs NOW
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sometimes serve a different function than with it originally evolved for
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kiwi bird vestigial organs
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tiny nubs left over for wings, now they are used for balance
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primates
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order of mammals to which humans, monkeys, and apes belong
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earliest primates
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squirrel-sized, arboreal, insect-eating african mammals that moved to the trees due to safety, food supply and lack of competition
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shared common ancestor
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ours were versions of the arboreal primates because they were useful for running around the tops of the trees
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adaptations for arboreal lifestyle
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mobile shoulders, opposable thumbs made hands prehensile to grasp branches and encircle them with thumb and finger, forward facing eyes (stereoscopic vision), color vision, larger brains and good memory
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stereoscopic vision
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allows for depth perception, important for leaping from tree to tree
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color vision
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allows for the easy identification of the ripe fruits and tender early young leaves
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larger brains and a good memory
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increased memory allows you to remember food sources better and improves social organization
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Humans did not evolve....
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directly from monkeys or apes, but we evolved from a shared common ancestor of both humans and monkeys
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walking upright
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african forest became grassland 4-5 million years ago, producing more predators and less protection
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bipedalism
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standing and walking on 2 legs, helps spot predators and helps carry food or infants
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adaptations for bipedalism
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skeletal and muscular modifications, increased brain volume
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increased brain volume continues
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even after bipedalism, size continued to increase as an adaptation for increased use
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increased skull size
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would make childbirth difficult and may explain why human infants are born in an immature state
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immature state of infants
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their helplessness increases the need for parental care and may explain pair bonding and development of family ties
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hominid
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human like species, all now extinct
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family life and social changes
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immature need for extra care
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adaptations of the feet, the legs, the pelvis, and the arms
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necessary for bipedalism to evolve
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adaptations are not perfect
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example: our spine not designed for two legged, it is designed for four legged animals...not designed to support our full upright mass....why back problems are so common
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bipedalism benefits
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freed up hands for use for tools, for labor, and for social organization
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Australopithecus
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oldest bipedal primate
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homo genus
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appeared 2.5 million years ago, taller, larger brain volume, probable speech, tool-making
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homo sapiens
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originated in Africa 200,000 years ago, sole surviving hominid species
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evolutionary/ darwinian medicine
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traces some of our disease and imperfections to our past
